Protein Concentration in Food: Changes over Time

Protein Concentration in Food: Changes over Time Sou, Oi Ying   Food processing practical report Ultra filtration UF Experimental data Medium inlet pressure(bar) exit pressure(bar) Average pressure(bar) Pressure Difference(bar) Temperature Retentate flow rate(Ls-1) Flux rate(Ls-1) A. Flux rate with water Cold water 3 1 2 2 18.7 0.053 12.8 4 2 3 2 19.7 0.053 20.3 5 3 4 2 20.5 0.0605 29.3 6 4 5 2 21.4 0.053 37.6 7 5 6 2 22 0.0605 46 4 3 3.5 1 22.6 0.0189 22.6 4.5 2.5 3.5 2 23.5 0.0151 30 5 2 3.5 3 24 0.098 27.3 5.5 1.5 3.5 4 24.6 0.1286 26.6 6 1 3.5 5 25 0.1428 27 Discussion During ultrafiltration, molecules in solution are separated based on size using membranes (filters) of different pore sizes. Also, the feed stream is continuously re-circulated across the membranes with the primary objective of removing excess water and buffer from the feed stream. The simplest ultrafiltration setup consists of a vessel to hold the retentate and a pump to recirculate the product over the membranes. According to the experimental results, temperature increased when average pressure and pressure different are increasing. About retentate flow rate, it only affected by increasing the pressure different but not average pressure. Also, flux rate of cold water only affected by increasing average pressure while it seems remain constant by increasing pressure different. Ultrafiltration of skim milk Because rejection = , Cf is the concentration of any component in the feed and Cp is the concentration of that component in the permeate. So, the result is in below table.       Concentration of skim milk time(min) pressure(bar) temp(oC) permeate flux rate(Ls-1) Retentate solids% Retentate protein % Retentate lactose % 0 6,2 42 10 0.5 3.38 4.67 15 6,2 38.6 8.666666667 4 4.02 4.66 30 6,2 36.1 7 4.5 5.04 4.76 45 6,2 37.8 6.666666667 5 6.5 4.87 60 6,2 41.7 6 5 8.6 4.82 75 6,2 45.2 5.333333333 5.5 11.4 4.8 Calculation: 4   (initial factor for protein) Use this information to show protein concentration changes with time and how the flux rate change with protein concentration, and explain any other findings. With respect to flux behaviour, the retentate and permeate fluxes decrease over time at different operating pressures during filtration. The filter medium resistance increases linearly with the filtration time at different operating pressures during concentration. Therefore, the permeation flux rate of skim milk will decrease with times. The major problem in membrane separation process is decline in flux over time of operation. This flux decline is attributed to the fouling (In this case, retentate solids and protein accumulated) through ultrafiltration of membrane. Membrane fouling is affected by three major factors, namely, the membrane material properties, the feed characteristics and the operating parameters (Platt Nystrà ¶m, 2007). Since we have known that retentate and permeate fluxes decline during concentration of milk was measured with time of process, the possible reason has been suggested. In early staged of milk ultrafiltration, the characteristics of proteinaceous foulants and flux, and adsorption fouling is probably the primary mechanism of flux decline. Reverse Osmosis RO experimental data Medium Pressure (bar) Temp(oC) return flow(Ls-1) Flux rate(Ls-1) Feed conductivity(uS) Permeate conductivity(uS) Cold water 10 17.7 0.312 0.012666667 920 44 20 19.1 0.028666667 958 29 30 20.3 0.075384615 999 19 40 21.7 0.072 1041 13 50 22.7 0.224 0.065333333 915 9 Estimate the power consumption for the highest pressure 1. Because pressure head = , g = 9.81m/s2, p1 = 0 and = 1ÃÆ'-103kg/m3 So, power = mass flow rate ÃÆ'- pressure head ÃÆ'- g = mass flow rate ÃÆ'- ÃÆ'- g = mass flow rate ÃÆ'- Because 1bar = 14.7psi = 105N/m-2 So the lowest power = 10bar = 10ÃÆ'-105N/m-2 = 1ÃÆ'-106N/m2, the highest power = 50 bar = 50ÃÆ'-105N/m-2 = 5ÃÆ'-106N/m2 P10 = mass flow rate ÃÆ'- =   = 312W P50 = mass flow rate ÃÆ'- = = 1120W Because rejection = , Cf is the concentration of any component in the feed and Cp is the concentration of that component in the permeate. So, the result is in below table.       Juice Pressure(bar) Temp.(oC) Flux rate(Ls-1) Retentate solids(%) Permeate solids(%) 10 15.7 0.017333333 5 0 20 18.7 0.016666667 5 0 30 20.1 0.110666667 5 0 40 21 0.116666667 5 0 50 22.6 0.278571429 5 0 0 min 50 26 0.257142857 5 0 5 50 26.2 0.03 13 0 10 50 23.6 0.02 15 0 15 50 23.2 0.013333333 22 0 20 50 25.7 0.014 21 0 25 50 29.7 0.009333333 26 0 30 50 33.3 0.005 30 0 35 50 36.4 0.002166667 22 0 Plot 1: flux rate curve of water and juice with pressure The flux of a RO membrane is directly proportional to temperature and pressure. According to the diagram, the flux rate pf water and juice are increasing because of the risen of pressure. In addition, the flux rate of water should be higher than the flux rate of juice at the same pressure condition because of the viscosity. However, it is not an experiment in ideal condition. In these two trial, the temperature of two sets of experiments are slightly different which might affect the result and difficult to compare. Plot2: Temperature of juice and cold water against pressure Is there any change of temperature during this procedure? If so, why? The effect of temperature on membrane performance is the vital indicator. Energy consumption is increased as the applied pressure increases (Elimelech, M., Phillip, W. A, 2011). Under the same pressure, temperature of juice and cold water are both increasing with the risen pressure, therefore, we can state that pressure increased, temperature increased at the same time. It is because the energy for processing juice have been dissipated. How do the permeate flux rate and retentate solids change with time? Plot 3: flux rate curve of juice with time Plot4: Retentate solids of juice against time Base on the result, the osmotic pressure of a solution is related to the concentration of the solute and temperature. They are in proportional relationship. The flux rate of juice decreases with increasing retentate solid concentration. However, the acidic properties of juice might lower the rate of process. Because it would cause the membrane imperfections. From some studies, it revealed that higher the number and concentration of low molecular weight water soluble components in the raw juice, higher processing loss in reverse osmosis (Jiao, B., Cassano, A., Drioli, E., 2004). Permeate flux is a function of feed concentration. Feed concentration differs with membrane and permeate flux is a function of feed concentration. As feed concentration increases, permeate flux decreases and vice versa (Jayaraman, K. S., Das Gupta, D. K., 1992). Given by graph, the flux rate of juice is almost approach zero after 35mins. It is because the concentration of retentate solids have been accumulated by time. The reason is that the increase of retentate solids (foulants), which accumulated on the membrane would stop the process until it cleans. Plot 5: Temp of juice against time The average processing capacity can be increased by temperature rise of feeding material. Relationship of soluble solids and sugar was slightly increased. At higher temperature, the membrane permeability coefficient is higher, the diffusivity coefficient in the solution increases and the viscosity coefficient decreases. The average processing capacity can be increased with the increased temperature of feeding material. The relationship between soluble solids and sugar increased slightly under higher temperature condition. At higher temperatures, the membrane permeability coefficient is higher, the diffusion coefficient in the solution increases and the viscosity coefficient decreases (Ghosh, A. K., Jeong, B. H., Huang, X., Hoek, E. M., 2008). Therefore, in our experiment, the temperature of juice is increasing by times. Use the sugar concentration data to estimate the rejection for sugar and compare this to the ideal situation In ideal condition, the speed of permeation of solvent depends upon the pressure applied, provide that the concentration of the solute constant and thus the osmotic pressure of the solution remains constant. For an ideal situation, the flux is linear to the pressure of feed. Also, requirements of ideal membrane are as follows: (i). The highest possible water permeability (ii). Greatest possible selectivity (iii). High pressure resistibility (iv). Reasonably long life when using in production (Martin, M., Eon, C., Guiochon, G, 1975) However, in our experiment, that is not in an ideal condition. The concentration of retentate solids are increasing and the membrane blocked to stop the process after 40 mins. Therefore, the rejection for sugar would happen when the foulants are on the membrane and not allow the juice pass through anymore. In this case, it happened at 40 minutes in the process. The flux rate is almost dropped to 0%. In normal industry, there are cleaning process to ensure the whole process are keep running and would not be stopped. References:         Ã‚   Bahnasawy, A. H., Shenana, M. E. (2010). Flux behavior and energy consumption of ultrafiltration (UF) process of milk. Australian Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 1(2), 54. Younos, T., Tulou, K. E. (2005). Energy needs, consumption and sources.  Journal of Contemporary Water Research Education,  132(1), 27-38. Jimenez-Flores, R., Kosikowski, F. V. (1986). Properties of ultrafiltered skim milk retentate powders.  Journal of Dairy Science,  69(2), 329-339.1 Jiao, B., Cassano, A., Drioli, E. (2004). Recent advances on membrane processes for the concentration of fruit juices: a review. Journal of food engineering, 63(3), 303-324.Al-Mutaz, I. S., Al-Ghunaimi, M. A. (2001, October). Performance of reverse osmosis units at high temperatures. IDA. Jayaraman, K. S., Das Gupta, D. K. (1992). Dehydration of fruits and vegetables-recent developments in principles and techniques. Drying Technology, 10(1), 1-50. Ghosh, A. K., Jeong, B. H., Huang, X., Hoek, E. M. (2008). Impacts of reaction and curing conditions on polyamide composite reverse osmosis membrane properties. Journal of Membrane Science, 311(1), 34-45 Elimelech, M., Phillip, W. A. (2011). The future of seawater desalination: energy, technology, and the environment. science, 333(6043), 712-717. Martin, M., Eon, C., Guiochon, G. (1975). Study of the pertinency of pressure in liquid chromatography III. A practical method for choosing the experimental conditions in liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A, 110(2), 213-232. Contamination Level of Mold: Entero Bacteriaceae Family Contamination Level of Mold: Entero Bacteriaceae Family Chapter III   METHODOLOGY 3.1. Introduction The research methodology used a qualitative approach. The study has been conducted in November 2016 in Bandung city. The survey, observe and microbiology contaminant sampling was collected from food vendors premises as the study population. The study design used to evaluate knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) and contamination level of mold also Entero Bacteriaceae family. In addition, socio-demographic questions and others premise information that can be predicted factors for understanding the relationship between food vendors characters.   Furthermore, support from the local government as a regulatory role on food street activities was investigated to identify and to understand how to enhance better implementation in food hygiene. 3.2 Methodology Design and Study Instrument 3.2.1 Methodology design The data survey presented the understanding, behavior, and implementation of hygiene practice by food vendor premises. The aspects were all assessed as follow: Knowledge; an assessment of hygiene practice knowledge was carried out using an interview survey. Attitude; Likert 5 points agree-disagree questions were asked for measuring the food handlers attitude. Practice; an observational study of food hygiene was used in the assessment. This audit used the score for measuring of its implementation. Microbiological contaminations sampling; an investigate study of cleanliness of cooking utensil. The presence of an implementation of regulatory aspects of street foods. The social demographic questions and food premises information were also surveyed to explore the characteristics of respondents. 3.2.2 Study Instrument In this present study, we used a constructed questionnaire based on the references. This questionnaire consist of (1) General questions regards to social demographic characteristics, (2) Food premises information (3) Knowledge, Attitude, Practice questions (4) The presence of an implementation of regulatory aspects. Socio-demographic questionnaire as a complementary questionnaire consists of factors predicted that influence on respondents (food street vendors) knowledge, behavior and practice on food safety and hygiene which are constructed based on literature such as age, sex, marital status, education level, number of employment, employee type (self employer/ employee), how long they have been a seller and also their profit per day. Food premises information showed the premises condition and type of food that sale, food preparation, food packaging material, type of facilities (i.e stall, mobile street vendors, tend, stand, or handed), and also hour length of sale. The knowledge questionnaire, consists of 10 questions containing multiple choices questions, was giving to respondent for reviewing their awareness on food hygiene. The questions concerning knowledge about food hygiene from storage, cleanness, preparation and personal hygiene linked to transmission of microorganisms, and respondents were asked to choose one answer from among three options. The questions of attitude consist of 10 questions. The answer options for these question used Likert scales ranging from 1 (very disagree) to 5 (very agree) to show a subjective response on their agreement on food hygiene implementation. The scores for attitude were similar with the range from 1-5, the higher score represents better manner on food hygiene. The scores for practice on food hygiene were calculated from 50 questions based on an audit that observed on premises. The appearance of reducing cross contamination on food handlers/vendors was noted e.g. personal hygiene, food storage, pest control and utensil/ equipment. The source of water supply was investigated also the ice (whether commercially bought or self-made). The presence of food exterior facilities and sanitary utilities was determined e.g. availability of toilets, adequate washing facilities, sink, surface, waste, and food packaging. The availability of cool storage/refrigeration storage was also checked. For microbial contaminant testing, VBRG dip slide type was used to determine whether there is evidence of entero bactericeae and mold in the food street premises e.g. cutting board, utensil, plate, glass and other food equipment. 3.3 DataCollection An interview survey was carried out in one sub-district in Bandung city in November 2016. The minimum number of food street vendors was randomly selected as much as the result from prior validation questionnaire tests. The validation of questionnaire process has been conducted in July 2016 in Bandung city for improving the questionnaire and determining the appropriate sampling size also an area which should be chosen. The sample size minimum required for the study are calculated based on as the result of the prior validation study. Based on the level of significant of 5% with a confidence interval of 95%, 253 premises/ respondents are needed for this study. In this cross-sectional study, we surveyed 272 respondents from one sub-district. Face to face interview was conducted in November 2016 by using Bahasa/Indonesian language and common Sundanese language as an ethnic language in the study area. All study instruments were in Bahasa/ Indonesia version and interview were taken on their premises. The study was supported by assistant researchers, as interviewers, who had food science background and understood both languages. The interviewer had been trained with regard to study such as food safety in a brief view, how to conduct the survey, interview method, study instrument, and ethical requirement including informed consent. The interviews were set in respondents premises to easier for answering the questions and to observe their practice on food hygiene. Informed consent form was read out by the interviewer. The interview taken as well as the respondents   were agreed to participate, questions were read out   by interviewers, and interviewers also marked the answer on the questionnaires instruments. The interviewe rs also acted as an auditor for observing the hygiene practice on their premises and recorded into practice audit sheet. Sampling for determining microbial contamination used a dip slide that consists two agar sides, the first side the red side was used to confirm the presence of Entero Bacteriaceae family and the second side that flaxen color for mold. The sampling procedures were: Remove the dip-slide from the tube by pulling the plastic tab at the top of the dip-slide. Take care not to allow the dip-slide agar (the jelly type substance on each side) to hit the edge of the clear plastic tube. Place dip slide agar down onto the surface, and make sure the entire agar has full contact with the surface.   Keep the agar applied to the surface for approximately 20 seconds, then turn over to the other side and apply the other agar to the surface. Replace the dip-slide into the sterile plastic tube taking care not to damage the agar. Next, place the dip-slide tube into a dip slide incubator at 37 0C or warm place. The incubation period is 2- 3 days for bacteria. The optimum temperature for most mold/yeast is from 27 0C to 30 0C and the incubation time is 2 7 days. After 3 days, generally, both of results were read and recorded. Bacteria present in the sample liquid will grow and form colonies. The selective agar for Entero Bacteriaceae colonies will appear in red. A bacterial reference chart is used to determine the number of bacteria in the sample. The bacteria reference level has five charts that showed how many colony-forming-unit( CFU)/cm2 e.g. 2.5 (very slight growth), 12 (slight growth), 40 (moderate growth), 100(heavy growth) and 250 (very heavy growth). While the evidence of mold form appears in the furry colony. The chart of mold consists of slight (0.4), moderate (1.6) and heavy (4). 3.4 Statistical analysis Food safety knowledge scores for the respondents were, calculated based on the multiple choice answer from   each question, only for the items of correct answers was assigned a score: +1 and 0 in the case of dont know/wrong option. For ten attitude questions were calculated from the Likert scale point 1-5, for question number 2, 6 and 9, the reversible point was used to calculate the point because it was a negative question. The answers were classified as +1 point when the auditor/interview found out the correct evidence on respondents premises and 0 points when they failed to find it. However, not available marked for a respondent who did not have the correlation item with the type of food. The total percent score for the respondents attitude was then calculated by sum up all score in total. Statistical analysis of the association between Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) questionnaire answers, social demographic characteristics and food information also microbial contamination level were carried out to determine the relationship between them and explore the pattern. Data were analyzed by SPSS version 20. Based on the level of significant of 5% with a confidence interval of 95%, all analyses were considered statistically significant at P ≠¤ 0.05. The descriptive analysis, Fishers χ square test, was performed to describe socio-demographics characteristics of the respondents. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-test was used for comparing mean scores between all factors and observing the relationships between KAP and predicted factors that may influence on KAP. Furthermore, to investigate whether this relationship systematically varied by specific socio-demographic characteristics for Independent variables included age, gender, and education level, and work experience, type of job which was full time or part time and having attended courses on food hygiene were conducted. Ethicalconsiderationreview This study has approved by Ethics Committee of the University of Birmingham, School of Chemistry Engineering, United Kingdom. The identity of respondents will be treated securely and the outcome only will be used for academic purpose. The researcher and university supervisor will keep all data collection with confidential care. Chapter IV RESULT 4.1 Sociodemographic We obtained 272 responses from one area, 269 participants have completed the questions (response rate= 98.89%). Distribution of some socio-demographics characteristics respondents described in Table 1. Variable category Number % Gender Male 205 76.21 Female 64 23.79 Age group (years) Teen(15-24) 42 15.61 Young people (25-40) 102 37.92 Mature (41-60) 119 44.24 Elderly (> 60) 6 2.23 Marital Status Married 216 80.30 Unmarried 53 19.70 Education Level No Schooling 5 1.86 Elementary school 71 26.39 Junior High School 99 36.80 High school 78 29.00 Diploma 10 3.72 Graduate 6 2.23 Profit per day (IDR) < 50 K 17 6.32 50   100 K 131 48.70 101   200 K 64 23.79 201 300 K 26 9.67 301 400 K 9 3.35 > 401 K 22 8.18 Eat your own product Never 13 4.83 Rarely (1 4 times a month) 68 25.28 Sometimes (1-4 times a week) 75 27.88 Often (> 4 times a week) 35 13.01 Very often (every day) 78 29.00 Job type Part time 5 1.86 Full time 264 98.14 4.2 Food premises information

My Family :: Personal Narrative essay about myself

Have you ever been influenced by some important person that helped you be the person that you are today? I have been. The people that have had influence on me are the most important humans beings, my family. But before I begin talking about my family, I want to describe to you the place that we spend most of the time together which also means something important to me and my family. This place is called the family room. This room is small but cozy. It is painted in white and has three windows decorated with beautiful curtains. By the windows you can appreciate a nice view of some beautiful trees and a nice pool. On the walls there are some family photos like the ones that show where my brothers and I were born, my graduation photo, some family members photos like my grandparents, and some paintings made by one of my brothers. Also inside this room there is a nice home theater that includes a nice stereo and TV, and a new compact computer. But this is not all, this room has some very comfortable furniture and I can say that they are comfortable because I use them to watch TV, a movie, or just sit and rest. Also the furniture is used by my brothers to sit and play nitendo, to study, or play with the computer. But from all this furniture there is one chair that is the most cozy chair that I have ever sat upon and that is my father's chair. So this is our room, which is very important to us and has a lot of special things, but the most special part of this room is when it brings my family together. I could begin the book of my life with a picture of my parents. They are important because they helped in my development. Also, they gave me the things that I needed to grow up in the moment that I needed and they still gave me everything that I needed to become somebody in the future. Among these things is the education that I have received all in my life, my basic needs like food, clothes, medicine, a place to live, and the most important thing, the love. Like for example, by being there when I needed somebody to talk to and giving me speeches when I do something wrong.

Permaculture: An Approach to Agriculture :: Farming Food Papers

Permaculture: An Approach to Agriculture "Without agriculture there will be immediate mass starvation, but with agriculture there will be a continual eroding away of the productive basis of human livelihood." -Wes Jackson (23) With the exception of some indigenous cultures where hunting and gathering is practiced, agriculture has been humans' primary source of food production for thousands of years. As time has passed, humans have furthered their knowledge of how agricultural systems work. This has resulted in a modern agriculture backed by hundreds of years of scientific research that seeks to ever increase the amount of food produced by a given acreage of land. Yet while modern agriculture is becoming more focused on efficiently producing food, it is not being followed with sensitivity to how it affects the environment and even the health of soils under its own feet. Since food production is in essence a focused natural process (growth of specific plants and animals), it is intrinsically dependent on the natural world and its systems. Thus, as Jackson points out in the above quote, an agricultural system unconcerned with environmental health is ignoring its very foundations. A majority of the world's food needs are currently being met by the modern production-focused agricultural system mentioned above. However, as the scientific community is finding more and more evidence of a link between environmental degradation and this type of agriculture, new methods of agriculture are being developed and practiced that focus equal attention to both environmental health and food production. One such model, permaculture, is rapidly gaining attention throughout the world due to its foundational proposal: intelligent and ecologically sensitive design of agricultural systems should naturally be more efficient and productive than the ecologically destructive conventional systems. Problems With Conventional Industrialized Agriculture

Seasonal Affective Disorder: A Clear Link Between the Outside and the I

Seasonal Affective Disorder: A Clear Link Between the Outside and the Inside of the Brain And God said, Let there be light; And there was light. And God saw that the light was good; And God separated the light from the darkness. God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And there was evening and there was morning, one day. (Genesis 1:3-5) (1) The sun has been an endless source of inspiration, both physical and spiritual, throughout the ages. For its light, warmth, and the essential role it has played in the maintenance of the fragile balance of life on earth, the sun has been honored and celebrated in most of the world's religions. While the regeneration of light is constant, the relative length of time between the rising and setting of the sun is affected by the changing of the seasons. Hippocrates postulated centuries ago that these changing patterns of light and dark might cause mood changes (9). Seasonal downward mood changes of late fall and winter have been the subject of many sorrowful turn-of-the-century poems of lost love and empty souls. For some, however, â€Å"the relationship between darkness and despair is more than metaphoric (6). It is only recently that the distinct neurological effects associated with the shortening of the day in winter have been more clearly understood. One interesting example of mood change associated with seasonal change is Seasonal Affective Disorder. While Seasonal Affective Disorder (or SAD) is interesting in itself as a long-suffered from but only recently labeled illness, it is perhaps most interesting as an illustrative example of the complex interplay between neurological processes and the environment. The study of Seasonal Affective Disorder provides fasci... ...ide? If healing comes from a pill, a shot, a box of light, does that make the illness real? Although my father would probably have steam coming out of his ears by this point in reading this paper, the lesson here is not in whether or not Seasonal Affective Disorder treatment should be covered by health insurance. Instead, it should be understood within the larger framework of how minds interact with the environment. Seasonal mood change is a clear and undeniable example of what happens when something goes wrong in the exchange of information from the outside to the inside. By examining seasonal mood change, the string linking the environment, circadian rhythms, the brain and behavior is a little tighter. Internet Sources: http://eawc.evansville.edu/anthology/genesis.htm http://web.nami.org/helpline/sad.htm http://www.cybercouch.com/library/seas.dbp.html Seasonal Affective Disorder: A Clear Link Between the Outside and the I Seasonal Affective Disorder: A Clear Link Between the Outside and the Inside of the Brain And God said, Let there be light; And there was light. And God saw that the light was good; And God separated the light from the darkness. God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And there was evening and there was morning, one day. (Genesis 1:3-5) (1) The sun has been an endless source of inspiration, both physical and spiritual, throughout the ages. For its light, warmth, and the essential role it has played in the maintenance of the fragile balance of life on earth, the sun has been honored and celebrated in most of the world's religions. While the regeneration of light is constant, the relative length of time between the rising and setting of the sun is affected by the changing of the seasons. Hippocrates postulated centuries ago that these changing patterns of light and dark might cause mood changes (9). Seasonal downward mood changes of late fall and winter have been the subject of many sorrowful turn-of-the-century poems of lost love and empty souls. For some, however, â€Å"the relationship between darkness and despair is more than metaphoric (6). It is only recently that the distinct neurological effects associated with the shortening of the day in winter have been more clearly understood. One interesting example of mood change associated with seasonal change is Seasonal Affective Disorder. While Seasonal Affective Disorder (or SAD) is interesting in itself as a long-suffered from but only recently labeled illness, it is perhaps most interesting as an illustrative example of the complex interplay between neurological processes and the environment. The study of Seasonal Affective Disorder provides fasci... ...ide? If healing comes from a pill, a shot, a box of light, does that make the illness real? Although my father would probably have steam coming out of his ears by this point in reading this paper, the lesson here is not in whether or not Seasonal Affective Disorder treatment should be covered by health insurance. Instead, it should be understood within the larger framework of how minds interact with the environment. Seasonal mood change is a clear and undeniable example of what happens when something goes wrong in the exchange of information from the outside to the inside. By examining seasonal mood change, the string linking the environment, circadian rhythms, the brain and behavior is a little tighter. Internet Sources: http://eawc.evansville.edu/anthology/genesis.htm http://web.nami.org/helpline/sad.htm http://www.cybercouch.com/library/seas.dbp.html

History of Pakistan

My History Notes Harris Masood Don’t Dare Touch! O Levelz  o2 lecture 1- ideology of pakistan. lecture 2- ideology of pakistan in the light of statements of quaid-i-azam and allama iqbal lecture 3- the aligarh movement lecture 4- sir syed ahmad khan and his contributions . lecture 5- major political developments 1857-1918 lecture 6- the khilafat movement lecture 7- muslim politics in british india: 1924-1935 lecture 8- allama iqbal’s presidential address december 1930 lecture 9- muslim politics and chaudhry rahmat ali lecture 10- the congress ministries– policies towards muslims lecture 11- the lahore resolution, 1940. lecture 12- major political developments in 1945-46 lecture 13- towards independence, 1947 lecture 14- constitutional development in british india lecture 15- the problems of the new state lecture 16- the objectives resolution (1949) lecture 17- constitutional issues lecture 18- constitution making(1947-56) Lecture 1 – Ideology of Pakistan Ideology of Pakistan Ideology is a set of beliefs, values and ideals of a group and a nation. It is deeply ingrained in the social consciousness of the people.It is a set of principles, a framework of action and guidance system that gives order and meaning to life and human action. Ideology emphasizes on some particular principles, ideals and blueprint for the future. It is a review of the existing political, social and economic arrangements that create consciousness based on its principles. It legitimizes or delegitimizes certain ac tions and philosophies. Ideology gives nation a direction and worldview and its implementation is the responsibility of the concerned people. Ideology of Pakistan The ideology of Pakistan took shape through an evolutionary process.Historical experience provided the base; Allama Iqbal gave it a philosophical explanation; Quaid-i-Azam translated it into a political reality; and the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, by passing Objectives Resolution in March 1949, gave it legal sanction. It was due to the realization of the Muslims of South Asia that they are different from the Hindus that they demanded separate electorates. However when they realized that their future in a ‘Democratic India’ dominated by Hindu majority was not safe, they changed their demand to a separate state.The ideology of Pakistan stemmed from the instinct of the Muslim community of South Asia to maintain their individuality in the Hindu society. The Muslims believed that Islam and Hinduism are not on ly two religions, but are two social orders that produced two distinct cultures. There is no compatibility between the two. A deep study of the history of this land proves that the differences between Hindus and Muslims are not confined to the struggle for political supremacy but are also manifested in the clash of two social orders.Despite living together for more than one thousand years, they continue to develop different cultures and traditions. Their eating habits, music, architecture and script, all are poles apart. The basis of the Muslim nationhood was neither territorial nor racial or linguistic or ethnic rather they were a nation because they belonged to the same faith, Islam. They demanded that the areas where they were in majority should be constituted into a sovereign state, wherein they could order their lives in accordance with the teachings of Holy Quran and Sunnah of Holy Prophet (PBUH). Evolution of ‘Two Nation Theory’Concept of Muslims as a Nation deve loped before the establishment of Pakistan. Pakistan was the product of this concept of nationhood rather than Pakistan creating a concept of nationhood. Retrospectively the Muslim nationalism emerged with the advent of Islam that introduced new principles pertinent to every sphere of life. It pledged the redemption of the humankind establishing a benign society based on Qur’anic teachings. The beginning of the Muslim nationalism in the Sub-Continent may be attributed to the first Indian who accepted Islam. The Arab traders had introduced the new religion, Islam, in the Indian coastal areas.Muhammad bin Qasim was the first Muslim invader who conquered some part of India and after that, Mahmud of Ghazna launched 17 attacks and opened the gate to preach Islam. The Muslim sufi (saints) like Ali Hejveri, Miran Hussain Zanjani etc. entered Sub-Continent. They, rejecting the vices in the Indian society, presented the pure practical picture of the teachings of Islam and got huge con versions. Qutub-ud-Din Aibuk permanently established Muslim dynasty in India that followed Sultanate and Mughal dynasties. Thus a strong Muslim community had emerged in India who had its own way of life, traditions, eroes, history and culture. Islam could not be absorbed in Hinduism. Deen-e-Ilahi, Bakhti movements, etc. created reaction amongst the Muslim ulama to preserve the pure Islamic character and save it from external onslaught. Role of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi and others is noteworthy. Equality and social justice inspired conversions to Islam. The British won over the Muslim rulers due to the industrial and scientific developments and modern war strategy. The War of Independence (1857) was a shattering setback to the Indian Muslims who were held responsible for the rebellion by the British.The Muslims were put into the backwardness with the help of Hindus. This was one of the outstanding motivations that paved the way to declare the separate identity of nationalism, the Muslim nationalism. The Muslim scholars sought to reform the teaching of Islamic law and to promote its application in a Muslim society. The prominent name among them is Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-98) who awakened and guided his community well in time. His educational drive, the Ali-Garh movement, proved to be the best means of social mobility for the Muslim gentry under colonial rule.In 1885 the Indian National Congress was founded to indicate the beginning of the Indian nationalist movement under the British. The Congress worked and helped the British rule. Sir Syed advised the Muslims not to join it because, he thought, the Muslims were not in position to involve into the anti-government activities. It has been argued that Sir Syed's fear of Hindu domination sowed the seeds for the â€Å"Two Nations Theory† later espoused by the All-India Muslim League, founded in 1906 and led to its demand for a separate state for the Muslims of India.Sir Syed argued that modern education and non -political activities might be the key to Muslim advancement. The Ali-Garh movement produced educated leadership who could protect the Muslims’ rights on the Western political lines. All India Muslim League had been founded in Dhaka to promote loyalty to the British and to protect and advance the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India. Thus the concept of ‘separate electorates’ was put forward to dawn a new day for the Indian Muslims. The Two-Nation Theory served as the basis of demand for Pakistan by the Muslims in British India.There are two major nations in British India. The Muslims are not a community but a nation with a distinctive history, heritage, culture, civilization, and future aspirations. The Muslims wanted to preserve and protect their distinct identity and advance their interests in India. They wanted to order their lives in accordance with their ideals and philosophy of life without being overwhelmed by an unsympathetic majority. Initially, they demanded safeguards, constitutional guarantees and a federal system of government with powers to the provinces for protection and advancement of their heritage, identity and interests.Later, they demanded a separate state when neither the British nor the Hindu majority community was willing to offer those guarantees and safeguards. Hindi-Urdu Controversy Hindu revivalist movements turned more against the Muslims. Hindu nationalism was rival to the Muslim nationalism. The Indian nationalism forced Muslims to organize themselves politically to defend their interests effectively. After 1857, Hindi-Urdu Controversy was the major assault by the Hindus on Muslim heritage and legacy of the great Muslim Empire.Hindus were biased against Urdu as it was the Muslims’ language. They demanded Hindi as the official language replacing Urdu. There were demonstrations against Urdu by the Hindus in Banaras in 1867. It was the start of the Hindi-Urdu controversy. On the very iss ue, Sir Syed foretold about the unstable future of Hindu-Muslim unity. Hindus struggled vigorously to replace Urdu by Hindi in the offices. This enhanced the importance of the sense of Muslim separatism. The Muslim nationalism is manifested with the sublime principles to implement like: 1.Rule of Law, socio-economic justice, equity and fair play. 2. Equality of opportunity to all citizens irrespective of caste, sect, religion or region. 3. Religious and Cultural tolerance. 4. Respect for human dignity and rights. 5. Protection of the rights and interests of non-Muslims and freedom to practice their beliefs and religions. These principles are enshrined in the constitutions. We ought to work towards realization of these goals in reality and create institutions and processes that reflect these principles and values.Lecture 2- Ideology of Pakistan in the Light of Statements of QUAID-I-AZAM and ALLAMA Ideology of Pakistan in the Light of Statements of QUAID-I-AZAM and ALLAMA IQBAL The De velopment of Muslim Identity and Two-Nation Theory and Quaid-i-Azam and Allama Iqbal The sense of nationhood developed among the Muslims before the establishment of Pakistan. Their goal was mostly to protect and promote their identity and interests and shape their lives in accord with their ideals and philosophy of life without being overwhelmed by an unsympathetic majority.They adopted the strategy to get constitutional safeguards from the British against the cruel majority of Hindus but because of the antagonistic treatment from the rivals they set the goal of a separate state. Islam had central place to their further developments. The role of leadership is very important to put nation on the way. A good leadership infuses the qualities of awareness, consciousness, mobilization, sense of direction, and defense against the adversaries. The Muslims were lucky having such competent leadership. Muhammad Ali JINNAH M. A.Jinnah was a history-making leader who changed the course of histo ry. He possessed a visionary leadership, commitment to the cause and political mobilization capacity. He was a Charismatic Leader in the real sense of the meaning. ROLE OF JINNAH Jinnah played a decisive role in articulating the Muslim demands and pursuing these faced strong opposition from the Hindus and the British. He started his political career in 1906 by joining the Indian National Congress. He was elected to the Legislative Council in 1909 and in 1913 he also joined the All India Muslim League (AIML).Now he was member of both the political parties. Having disagreement with Gandhi on the issue of Swaraj (self-rule), complete freedom from the British and on using extra-constitutional means, Jinnah resigned from the Congress in 1920. His early efforts to promote Hindu-Muslim unity were materialized when THE LUCKNOW PACT (1916) was signed. The Hindus accepted the Muslim demands: †¢ Separate Electorate †¢ One-third Seats in Central Legislature †¢ protection of minor ity rights In the Nehru Report, the accepted Muslim rights were ignored. Jinnah retaliated forcefully by presenting 14 Points in 1929.He defined Muslim identity and mobilized them with reference to Islam and convinced others that Muslims are different from the Hindus and the Congress. Islamic principles, concepts and symbols surfaced in his speeches and statements. Jinnah used the term NATION for the Muslims of India in Feb 1935 (Legislative Assembly). He argued that the combination of religion, culture, race, arts, music and so forth make a minority a SEPARATE ENTITY. In March 1936 Bombay, he stated that the Muslims could arrive at a settlement with Hindus as TWO Nations. In 1937, he asserted that there is also a third party in India, the Muslims.In 1939, he roared that the Muslims and Hindus are two nations and they are going to live as a nation and playing part as a nation: We are a nation with our own distinctive culture and civilization, language and literature, names and nomen clature, sense of values and proportion, legal laws and moral code, custom and calendar, history and tradition, aptitudes and ambitions; in short, we have our own distinctive outlook on life and of life. By all cannons of international law, we are a nation. Speeches and statements: 1940-47 Jinnah believed in the force of Islam as he said that Islam is a dynamic force that can unite the Muslims.It can help to overcome the present crisis. It’s a source of inspiration and guidance providing ethical foundation, a framework, social order and civilization. Guidance & inspiration for constitution-making and Governance He also talked of the modern notions of state, constitution, civil and political rights and democracy. He assured that constitution of Pakistan would be framed by the elected assembly. Modern democratic and Islamic State He gave assurance of equality of all citizens and rights and freedom to religious minorities in the new state. ALLAMA IQBAL: POET AND PHILOSOPHERVISIO N OF A SEPARATE MUSLIM STATE Men like Allama Iqbal are born but in centuries. He was conscious of significance of Islam in lives of the Muslims. His first public appearance was in 1899 at the annual session of Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam in Lahore when he presented the poem, Nala-i-Yatim. At initial stages Dr Iqbal was a nationalist by ideas and his poetry contained verses like Tarana-i- Hind. His poetry was a critique of the existing societal conditions. Being educated from Europe, he knew all weak aspects of the Western culture. He criticized capitalism, materialism and lack of spiritualism.IQBAL- Focus on the conditions of the Indian Muslims Islam can salvage the Muslims Islam has always saved Muslim Islam is a living and dynamic ideology that can meet modern challenges Islam to help them to overcome their internal discord and enable them to meet external challenges With spiritualism based derived from Islam Ijtehad and Reinterpretation (READ: Reconstruction of Religious Thought in I slam) Address to the Muslim League Session, Allahabad, December 1930 I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sind, Balochistan amalgamated into a single state as a self government within the British empire or without.This is the final destiny of the Muslims of N. W. India. (Dr Iqbal’s verses may be quoted) web site may also be visited: Lecture 3 – The Aligarh Movement The Aligarh Movement The War of Independence 1857 ended in a disaster for the Muslims. The British believed that the Muslims were responsible for the war of 1857 and therefore, they were subjected to ruthless punishment and merciless revenge. The British had always looked upon the Muslims as their enemies because they had ousted them from power.With the war of 1857 this feeling was intensified and every attempt was made to ruin and suppress the Muslims forever. Thus the Mughal rule came to an end and the sub- continent went directly under the British crown. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan made modern education the way to progress After the Muslim rule, the new rulers, the British, implemented a new educational policy with drastic changes. The policy restricted Arabic, Persian and religious education in schools and made English as the only medium of instruction as well as the official language in 1835.A wrong attitude of everything modern and Western, and disinclination to make use of the opportunities opening under the new regime was created among the Muslims. This tendency, had it continued long, would have proved disastrous for the Muslim community. Such were the days of despair and despondency when Sir Syed appeared on the horizon of Muslim India to rescue them. Sir Syed had the conviction that regeneration of the Indian Muslims had not at all visualized that mankind had entered a very important phase of its existence, i. e. n era of science and learning which was the source of progress and prosperity for the British. Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his movement for the regener ation of the Indian Muslims, which brought a complete orientation in their lives. He tried to transform Muslim minds from medieval outlook to a modern one. Hali and Shibli were also associated with the Aligarh Movement. Sir Syed’s first and foremost objective was to modernize the Muslims following the Western cultural values that could create friendly atmosphere for the two communities.He motivated his community to learn the Western philosophy and English literature to get along with the ruling people. Therefore, in order to fulfill this desire he started the Aligarh movement. He had two immediate objectives in view: 1) To remove the state of tension between the Muslims and the British government, and 2) To induce them to get jobs and other facilities under the new government. To him, this was the only way for the Muslims to prosper. The ideas of Sir Syed may be summed up as following: 1. To create an atmosphere of mutual understanding between the British government and the M uslims 2.To motivate the Muslims to learn Western education 3. To persuade Muslims to abstain from agitational politics Fortunately, Syed Ahmad Khan was able to attract a number of sincere friends who shared his views and helped him. Among them were well-known figures like Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk, Nawab Viqar ul Mulk, Hali, Shibli, Nazir Ahmad, Chiragh Ali, Mohammad Hayat, and Zakaullah. All these personalities advocated the cause set by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. Some English professors like Bech, Morison, Raleigh and Arnold also contributed greatly in building up the Aligarh college into a first rate institution.Syed Ahmad launched his educational movement by setting up Gulshan School at Muradabad – 1859; Victoria School at Gazipur in 1863; Scientific Society for the translation of English works in the native language, Urdu, at Aligarh in 1864; Aligarh Institute Gazette imparting information on history – ancient and modern, science of agriculture, natural sciences, physical s ciences and Advanced Mathematics in 1866; Committee Striving for the Educational Progress of Muslims – 1870; Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental School (MAO) at Aligarh in 1875 at the pattern of English public schools and later raised to the level of college in 1877 and university in 1920; Mohammedan Educational Conference (1886), which met every year to take stock of the educational problems of the Muslims and to persuade them to get modern education and abstain from politics; it later became a political mouthpiece of the Indian Muslims and the forerunner of the All India Muslim league. Besides his prominent role in the educational uplift of the Muslims, Syed Ahmad Khan’s writings played important role in popularizing the ideals for which the Aligarh stood.His Risala Asbab-i-Baghawat-i-Hind in 1858; and other writings as Loyal Mohammedans of India; Tabyin-ul-Kalam and Khutbat-i-Ahmadiya rooted out the misunderstandings about Islamic teachings and helped create a cordial relatio n between the British Government and the Indian Muslims and also helped to remove the misunderstanding about Islam and Christianity. It was this platform from where Syed Ahmad Khan strongly forbade the Muslims to join the Hindu dominated political party, the Indian National Congress. He regretted the Urdu-Hindi controversy initiated by Hindus and predicted that both the nations could no longer live together. He stood for reserved Movement theory. eats for Muslims and also promoted the idea that Hindus and Muslims are two distinct nations, which led to the Two Nation Syed Ahmad Khan’s Aligarh Movement played a significant role to bring about an intellectual revolution among the Indian Muslims. Thus Aligarh Movement succeeded in achieving its major objectives and boosted up the depressed Muslim community to the real status of nation. Lecture 4 – Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and His Contributions Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and His Contributions The great emancipator of the Indian Muslims Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was born at Delhi in 1817. This is the period when the great Mughal Empire was close to a complete collapse.Sir Syed’s family had already joined the East India Company and his maternal grandfather served in Iran and Burma under the British government. Sir Syed got interest in English from his maternal family. SM Ikram writes, â€Å"For this insight into the affairs of the state and first contacts with Western learning and civilization he was indebted to his maternal grandfather†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (S. M. Ikram, Modern Muslim India, p. 18). Sir Syed was very healthy by birth and his grandfather remarked: â€Å"A Jat has been born in our family. † (Ibid. , p. 19) The death of Sir Syed forced him to join the British as head clerk in 1839. The death of his brother made him serious and energetic to face the neuroses of life courageously. Another event that changed him entirely was the War of Independence in 1857.In 1841, he passed examination and became sub- judge. At the eve of the War of Independence he was performing the duties as sub-judge in Bijnore. He established educational institutions and after coming at Aligarh he rejuvenated his aspirations to work for the depressed Muslims of the Subcontinent. He devoted his entire life for this purpose to bring the Muslims close to the British. He died on March 27, 1898 and was buried in Aligarh. His Services He took responsibility of the Indian Muslims when they had been thrown in backwardness, depression andn humiliation. The British held them criminal of the War while the Hindus had won the British being anti-Muslim force.In such environment, Sir Syed guided his community to rejoin the life. To Dr Qalb-i-Abid, â€Å"Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was among a very few leaders produced by Muslim India, who like Mohammad Ali Jinnah made a tremendous contribution in guiding the destinies of the Indian Muslims. † (Dr Q. Abid, Muslim Struggle for Independence, p. 11. ) Sir Syed and Politics In th e political arena, Sir Syed carved numerous successes; he eradicated misunderstandings between the Muslims and the British infused due to the past particular incidents. Awakening among the Muslims about the political ups and downs and co-existence in the presence of other nations in India was another contribution of Sir Syed.He motivated the Muslims to absorb the modern education of the West because this was the very motive of the Western expansion in the world. He visualized the bright future of the Muslims if they engaged themselves in the Western learning. Sir Syed won the British confidence and cordial relationship by saving their lives during the War of Independence. He utilized this relationship for the betterment of the Muslims. It was a subtle situation because the government had put the War crimes on the Muslim shoulders and assaulted their every aspect of life: â€Å"These events were a trauma for the Muslims; †¦the methods used by them shocked the civilized world. T he detestation of Delhi as a centre of Muslim culture was horrendous; Bahadur Shah Zafar†¦was exiled to Rangoon; Lt.Hodson shot three Mughal princes and later 24 princes were tried and executed; a vast ocean of blood there was; Some Muslims were shot dead and their dead bodies were thrown into the river Jamna†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Ibid. , p. 14). All Muslims were ousted from land, property and employments that made them third class citizens of India. This created revengeful sentiments among the Muslims who detested British, their culture and civilization. Sir Syed was of the view that British were a civilized, educated, wise and disciplined nation and occupied India with the new war strategy and munitions that could not be matched by the locals and particularly by the Muslims.Therefore at the juncture the Muslims should mould themselves according to the pace of time to avoid more disaster. Sir Syed published Loyal Mohammedans of India and Risala Asbab-i-Baghawat-i-Hind that helped bot h the nations to redress their grievances. In 1885 the Indian National Congress was founded but Sir Syed warned the Muslims from the sinister aspirations of the Hindus. Another factor was that he intended the Muslims to abstain from the politics that could result in friction with the ruling nation. Urdu-Hindi Controversy Urdu grew as common language of all the Indians regardless of origin or religion but in 1867 the Benarsi Hindus started campaign to replace Urdu by Hindi.To gain the objectives, they declared numerous organizations, which discouraged Sir Syed who said to Shakespeare that since now both the nations could not live together. Later the followers of Sir Syed tried their level best to save Urdu language. Mohsin ul Mulk was the outstanding person who organized the Muslims in defense of Urdu. Muslims-as a Nation Sir Syed used the word ‘nation’ for the Muslims. Some writers criticize that he declared Hindus and Muslims one nation. But as a matter of fact, he adv ocated the Hindu-Muslim unity that meant ‘the working relationship’ between the two nations as once he said: â€Å"Hindus and Muslims should try to be of one mind in matters which affected their progress. He favored separate electorate for the Muslims in 1883 saying that the majority would override the interests of the minority. (P. Hardy, pp. 136-37) United Indian Patriotic Association In 1888, he set up the Patriotic Association to meet the propaganda of the Congress. Muslims and Hindus joined the Association. It advocated the Muslims’ emotions. Mohammedan Defense Association In December 1893, Sir Syed founded the Association. Its main purpose was to protect the political, religious and social rights of the Muslims. Sir Syed was great because he contributed greatly to the Muslim struggle for identity. Otto von Bismarck served the German nation with the help of all government sources but Sir Syed did the same without all this.To Khalid Bin Sayeed, â€Å"Many t ributes have been paid to Sir Sayyed, particularly by modern educated Muslims for being daring enough to put forward such views in an age which was by no means liberal or tolerant. † (Dr Khalid Bin Sayeed, Pakistan, the Formative Phase, p. 17). Lecture 5- Major Political Developments 1857-1918 Major Political Developments 1857-1918 The year 1857 brought decline to the Muslim rule in India. Muslims and Hindus participated in the War of Independence but the British held only Muslims responsible for the rebellion. The Muslims were persecuted ruthlessly and left at the mercy of time. The post war era was disastrous for the Muslims but some personalities emerged on the national scene and played excellent role to guide their people in this critical situation.The Central Mohammedan Association of Justice Amir Ali Syed and the Aligarh movement are very prominent in this regard. Their efforts for revival of the self-identity and political positioning in the Indian society enabled them to face any challenge in the future. Some important issues have already been discussed in the previous lectures. So a brief reference to events in historical context may be given: †¢ Decline after the 1857 Uprising †¢ Sir Syed and his colleagues’ efforts for revival †¢ Removal of misunderstanding between the Muslims and the British †¢ Educational movement or acquisition of modern knowledge and English †¢ Hindi-Urdu Controversy was the issue that unearthed the hatred and enmity ofHindu community towards the Muslims. †¢ Formation of the Congress was a method to incorporate the Muslims in Hinduism. It popularized the agitational politics that Muslims could not afford because they were still recovering the past gaps. †¢ Hindu Revivalist movements mostly targeted the Muslims that accelerated the pace of widening the gulf between the two nations. Events Since the Beginning of 20TH Century 1. Partition of Bengal, 1905 2. Simla Deputation, 1906 3. F ormation of the Muslim League, 1906 4. Changes in the Goals of the Muslim League, 1913 5. Lucknow Pact, 1916 1: Partition of Bengal: 1905 United Bengal’s area covered 189,000 sq. miles with 80 million populations.Dr Abdul Hameed writes in his book, Muslim Separatism in India, that the partition was imperative even if Curzon had not initiated it. A Lt. Governor had problems in looking after the eastern areas. Mainly Muslim suffered because of the rotten administration by the British. Before 1905, many proposals of partition of Bengal had been under consideration but Lord Curzon decided to practicalise this administrative scheme. East Bengal became incidentally a Muslim majority province having 13000000 out of 31000000. West Bengal was a Hindu majority province. Muslims were very happy on the partition as this had enabled them to promote their life conditions.It was rightly an opportunity for compensation. The Muslim community supported it strongly but Hindus retaliated furious ly saying it the division of motherland. The Congress joined the anti-partition movement. They started widespread agitation, violence and boycott of foreign goods. The main reason of Hindu protest was that they had loosened grip over the eastern parts. Annulment of the Partition on 12 December 1911 The British government revoked the partition to avoid trouble on the visit of King George V. The Muslims were disappointed by the government response to the violent strategy of protests adopted by the Hindus. 2: The Simla Deputation 1906In fact Simla Deputation was in line with a kind of thinking that was developing amongst the Muslims during that time i. e. they had certain interests and they must stand up to protect their rights and unless they do that that objective would not be achieved. The Simla Deputation of 1906 was the first systematic attempt on the part of the Muslims to present their demands, to the British government and to seek their acceptance. The Simla deputation comprise d 35 Muslims from all over India. It was a galaxy of Muslims leaders from all the provinces, from one end of India to the other and it had Muslims of all background. Therefore, when in 1906, this deputation called on the Viceroy, it was the most representative Muslim delegation.This delegation was led by Sir Agha Khan and Nawab Mohsin ul Malik served as a secretary and this delegation met the Viceroy in Simla that was why it was called as Simla Deputation. The memorandum which they presented was a kind of demands which were the uppermost in the minds of the Muslims at that time. The delegation emphasized that the Muslims should not be viewed simply in numerical terms but they should take into account their historical importance and the kind of contribution the Muslims had made to British India and keeping in view that importance they should work towards accommodating their demands. The delegation emphasized that democratic principle should be introduced keeping in view the peculiar conditions and circumstances of India.The diversity, the fact that there different kinds of people living in India and the fact that the Muslims consider themselves to be a separate entity, all these things had to be taken into account because the India was not a homogenous amalgamated or monolithic political identity. It was a political identity comprising diversity, divergence in view, divergence in outlook and when you introduce some kind of system then these realities had to be accommodated. In view of this submission they presented some demands: Representation more than their population because of their importance. Separate electorate Reservations of Muslims seats in government jobs. Special share in Municipal or district boards University senates and yndicates Muslim representation in Viceroy Executive Council. Muslim University at Aligarh. The Viceroy was sympathetic towards the demands. It encouraged the Muslims to launch struggle for their rights parallel to the Indian Nati onal Congress but it required an organized platform. 3: Formation of the Muslim League in Dhaka: December 30, 1906 Time had come to formally organize the Muslims after the success of the Simla Deputation. The Muslim leaders desired to create a permanent political forum. After the meeting of the Mohammedan Educational Conference, the Muslim leaders met to set up the All India Muslim League. Wiqar-ul-Mulk chaired the meeting.Nawab Salimullah proposed Muslim League and Hakim Ajmal Khan and Maulana Zafar Ali Khan seconded. In the Karachi session Dec. 1907 its constitution was approved and in March 1908 at Aligarh, Agha Khan was formally elected its president. London Branch: May 1908 Justice Amir Ali Syed organised a branch of Muslim League at London and responded effectively to the misunderstandings and conspiracies of the Hindus against the Muslims. GOALS: 1. Protection and promotion of political rights and interests of the Muslims. 2. Cooperation with other communities without prejudi ce to the above goal. 3. Fostering sense of loyalty, among the Muslims, towards the government 4: Change in the Goals of the Muslim League 1913Important developments occurred during the first decade of the 20th century like annulment of the Partition of Bengal and Western aggression towards Muslim countries, Balkan wars, Libya-Italy war, Demolition of the mosque in Kawnpur (1913), etc. weakened Muslim faith in the British. This led to a major drift in the Muslim League’s policy. In 1913, the League changed its goals: †¢ Self government under the British Crown keeping in view the peculiar conditions in India. †¢ Good relations with other communities’ cooperation with any party working for similar goals. This change brought the ML and Congress closer. In this way the era of cooperation between Hindus and Muslims set in. The role of the Quaid-i-Azam is highly noteworthy to bring the Congress and the Muslim League to the table. He joined the Muslim League in 1913 . 5: Lucknow Pact, 1916The Lucknow pact was the product of Hindu-Muslim unity envisaged by M. A. Jinnah. In December 1915, the ML and Congress met separately in Bombay. Both the parties set up committees for making a scheme for constitutional changes in consultation with other political parties. Role of the Quaid-i-Azam Jinnah did a lot to unite the two nations along with the recognition of the rights of Muslims. Meeting of both parties held at Lucknow in 1916. The constitutional proposals were approved: 1. One Third seats for Muslims in the Imperial Legislative Council. 2. Separate Electorate 3. Half members of the Executive Council to be elected by the Imperial Legislative Council. 4. Commissioned ranks of the army for Indians. 5.Expansion of Provincial Legislative Councils. 6. Half members of the Governor’s Executive Council be elected by Provincial Legislative Council 7. Weightage to minorities in provinces. Gains from Muslim Point-of-view 1. Separate Electorate 2. One Th ird Muslim seats in Central Legislature. 3. Unofficial bill, if opposed by three-fourth members of a community, it will not be passed. August 20, 1917 Announcement by British Government Secretary of State Montagu promised for: 1. Greater association of Indian in all branches of government. 2. Responsible government 3. Induction of Indians in the commissioned ranks. Conclusion: The historical struggle of the Muslims confirmed their identity.They organized their political party to address the demands. They also got recognition by the Hindus as a separate nation. The British accepted their role in the political domain. Lecture 6 – The Khilafat Movement The Khilafat movement was a religio-political movement launched by the Muslims of British India for the retention of the Ottoman Caliphate and for not handing over the control of Muslim holy places to non-Muslims. Turkey sided with Germany in World War 1. As it began to lose the war, concerns were expressed in India about the futu re of Turkey. It was a peak period from 1919 to 1922 casting demonstrations, boycott, and other pressure by the two major communities, the Hindus and the Muslims.Being brothers, the Indian Muslims realized their religious duty to help the Muslim country. It was the extra territorial attachments based on Islam. Another factor same to the first was that the Indian Muslims considered Ottoman Caliphate a symbol of unity of the Muslim world as Ummah. Goals: 1. Ottoman Khilafat should be kept intact. 2. Territorial solidarity of Turkey be preserved. 3. Control of holy the places should not be given to non-Muslims. Dimensions: The writings of the Muslim intellectuals provoked the sentiments for the preservation of Khilafat and retention of the Muslims control of the holy places. The Muslims journalism played a vital role to steer the direction of the struggle.Zamindar of Zafar Ali Khan, Comrade and Hamdard of Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, and Al-Hilal of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad etc. were th e prominent newspapers and magazines which performed their duties to express their resentment. The Allies imposed humiliating terms on vanquished Turkey. Protests in India: All India Khilafat Committee was formed at Bombay in July 1919. The first Khilafat Conference at Delhi in November 1919 was arranged in which the Congress leaders like Gandhi and Nehru participated. In this way, the major political parties joined hands to assault the injustice with the Muslim community. These steps were announced: No participation in victory celebrations. Boycott of British goodsNon Cooperation with the Government The second Khilafat Conference (Amritsar) was held in Dec. 1919. Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali joined the session after being released from prison. In Jan. 1920, M. A. Ansari led a delegation to Viceroy while Maulana M. A. Jauhar to Europe. The Khilafat Committee decided to start non-cooperation in collaboration with the Congress in May 1920. Rowlett Act, 1919 Rowlett Act was a b lack law introduced in India. To the law, the government got authority to persecute any Indian and the arrested had no facility of legal assistance and right to appeal just as the ‘Lettres de Cachet’ in France before the French Revolution.Jinnah resigned from the central legislature as a protest. Jallianwala Bagh Incident, April 1919 The people gathered in Jallianwala Bagh at Amritsar but General Dyer opened fire to disperse the throng that cast a huge human casualties (379). It is considered one of the great tragedies in India. In 1940, by killing Governor Punjab, Sir Michaal O’ Dayer, ‘Ram Muhammad Singh Azad’ got revenge of the Indian massacre. The Nagpur Session of the Congress (Dec. 1920) approved non-cooperation with Government but Jinnah opposed and left the Congress because he was against the use of extra-constitutional means of protests. Non-Cooperation: †¢ Return Titles. Boycott of courts and educational institutions. †¢ Resign fr om jobs. †¢ Later resign from police and military jobs. †¢ Refusal to pay taxes. Khilafat Conference, Karachi, July 1921 In the session the participants expressed their loyalty to Turkish Sultan. They decided to continue the agitation and supported Attaturk to expel foreign forces from Turkey. Hijrat Movement 1920-21 The Indian ulama (religious leaders) declared India ‘Darul Harab. ’ Darul Harab means the place (country) where Muslims are not allowed to perform their religious practices. In the said situation, the Muslims should migrate to the nearest safe place. The ulama issued verdicts to go to Darul Islam, Afghanistan.There was an impression that King of Afghanistan would welcome them. So the migration took place at large scale. Initially Afghans welcomed them. Later, they closed the border and pushed the migrants back to the Indian territories. It resulted in loss of lives and money. Many died during this mission. Some went to Soviet Union from Afghanista n because they had nothing in India now. End of the Movement Moplah Revolt Malabar Coast, near Kalicut Moplahs were the descendents of the Arab Muslims settled in the Sub-Continent even before the arrival of Muhammad Bin Qasim. In August 1921, they revolted against Hindu landlords whose treatment was very brutal with them.Later this clash changed as Moplahs versus the Police and Hindu. This embittered the Hindu-Muslim relations. There was an increase in violence day by day and the Chorachori Incident (UP) in February 1922 worsened the situation. The Congress volunteers set a police station on fire and 21 policemen were killed. Gandhi suddenly called off the movement. Developments in Turkey In 1922 Attaturk emerged as a national leader and restricted powers of Sultan. Next he was appointed Chief of the state by Grand National Assembly. In March 1924, Khilafat was abolished. This caused a widespread resentment among the Indian Muslims. They sent delegations to Turkey but failed to ach ieve their objectives. Conclusions: 1.It was re-affirmation of the reality that religion is a mobilizing force and especially Islam has mobilization capacity to organize masses. 2. It was the movement launched on the basis of extra-territorialism. Later, no such movement but Pan-Islamic sentiments continued. 3. It resulted in the sufferings of the Muslims 4. Hindu-Muslim unity proved short-lived. Reactivation of the Muslim League and other Muslim organizations to restart their activities as a separate nation was the great outcome. Lecture 7 – Muslim Politics in British India: 1924-1935 Muslim Politics in British India: 1924-1935 1. Delhi Muslim Proposals 2. Nehru Report 3. Quaid-i-Azam’s Fourteen Points 4. Simon Commission 5. Round Table Conferences 6. Constitutional Proposals Backdrop:The Khilafat movement brought Hindu-Muslim communities to cooperation. The leaders made the efforts to revive harmony for preparing constitutional proposals. 1: Delhi Muslim Proposals: M arch 1927 Important Muslim leaders on the initiative of the Quaid met in Delhi to discuss constitutional and political issues. The major demands were: †¢ Punjab and Bengal: statuary Muslim majorities †¢ No Weightage in provinces †¢ Sind to be separated from Bombay †¢ Constitutional Reforms in NWFP †¢ One-third seats for Muslims in Central Legislature †¢ On communal issues, no law will be passed if three-fourth members of the concerned community oppose it. If these demands are accepted, they will give up ‘separate electorate. Subsequently, the Muslim League was divided in the Punjab, Shafi League and Jinnah League. Sir Muhammad Shafi opposed Jinnah on the issues: †¢ Separate electorate †¢ Attitude towards the Simon Commission. Jinnah continued his unremitting efforts to promote Hindu-Muslim unity. 2: The Nehru Report: 1928 The main objective was to constitute proposals for the Indian Constitution. The Congress called All Parties Conferenc e that appointed a 10-member committee in May 1928 under the Chairmanship of Motilal Nehru and Secretary ship of Jawaharlal Nehru. Recommendations that threatened Muslim interests are: †¢ No Separate electorate †¢ No One-third seats for Muslims in Central Assembly No reservation of seats for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal. In Hindu- majority provinces, the Muslims may be given seats according to population †¢ Sind to be made a province if it can bear its expenses. Balochistan, NWFP were accepted to be given constitutional status on certain conditions. Quaid-i-Azam tried to get amendments in the Report in the All Parties Conference in Calcutta but did not succeed. This is the very moment when Jinnah remarked, â€Å"it is parting of the ways. † He presented the 14 points as a Muslim leader. 3: Jinnah’s Fourteen Points: 1929 1. Federal system with residuary powers with the provinces 2. Provincial autonomy. 3. Separate electorate for Muslims. 4.Effective repre sentation to minorities in the provinces but the majority should not be reduced to minority 5. One-third representation of Muslims in Central Legislature. 6. One third Muslim representation in cabinets. 7. No changes in the boundaries of the Punjab and Bengal that would adversely affect Muslim majority. 8. Religious freedom to all. 9. No law will be passed if three-fourth elected members of a community declare that it is against their interests. 10. Sind to be made a separate province. 11. Constitutional Reforms in NWFP and Balochistan. 12. Muslim representation in govt. jobs. 13. Constitutional safeguards for Islamic culture and civilization, education, language, personal laws and Muslim institutions.Government should provide financial assistance. 14. No constitutional amendment unless all constituent units of the federation agree to it. These points reflected the aspirations of every Muslim living in India. 4: The Simon Commission: The British government sent a commission to seek the opinion of Indians on the future shape of constitutional arrangements. It arrived in India in 1927 and it published the report in 1930. Most political parties boycotted it. It presented its report containing several constitutional proposals: †¢ Federal system of government with strong centre †¢ Two Houses. †¢ Abolition of Dyarchy system in provinces †¢ More powers to provincial governments. Governor not to interfere in day to day affairs. †¢ Constitutional changes in NWFP 5: Roundtable Conferences: 1930, 1931, and 1932 First Session of the Conference In the first session, a number of prominent Muslims like M. A. Jinnah, Sir Shafi, Maulana M. A. Jauhar, Zafarullah Khan participated. They emphasized federalism, self- government, safeguards for minorities, separate electorate, preferential representation in central legislature, secure majorities in Punjab and Bengal. Second Conference Maulana M. A. Jauhar had died after the first conference. Iqbal, Jinnah a nd others participated in the second conference. Gandhi represented the Congress.The key issues of the session were ‘Federation’ and ‘Minorities. ’ The Communal Award, August 1932 Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award: 1. Separate electorate for all minorities of India. 2. Weightage to minorities 3. No Muslim majorities in Punjab and Bengal as was followed in Lucknow Pact 4. One third representation for Muslims in Central legislature 5. One fourth representation for Muslims in services 6. Sind to be made a province Poona Pact, September 1932 The Congress expressed strong reaction against the right of separate electorate to the Indian minorities, especially to low caste Hindus whom Gandhi named Harijan (sons of God).Dissonance in Gandhi is conspicuous that he observed fast unto death on the right to the ‘sons of God. ’ An agreement with low caste to surrender the separate electorate right was concluded to save Gandhiâ€⠄¢s life. 3rd Roundtable Conference: Nov. 17-Dec. 24 1932 The main issues had been discussed in the first two conferences and now the rest of them were to be discussed. It was poorly attended conference. Quaid did not participate despite living in London. Gandhi did not attend as he had been detained. The conference brought no change in party positions and widened Hindu-Muslim gulf. White Paper on Constitutional Proposals: March 1933 The British government issued a small document in the form the White Paper.It included detail of working basis of the Indian constitution with Dyarchy in the centre and full responsible governments in the provinces. Government of India Act, 1935 Approved by the King: August 1935 Despite these efforts the communal problems could not be settled as satisfactory to the nations living in India particularly the Muslim. Therefore the key issues remained unchanged: †¢ Hindu Muslim Relations †¢ Failure to arrive at settlement †¢ Muslim demands tra nsmuted from safeguarding rights to complete independence—Pakistan. Lecture 8 – ALLAMA IQBAL’s Presidential Address December 1930 ALLAMA IQBAL’s Presidential Address December 1930 Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal ranks amongst the Muslim intellectuals who left a deep impact on history.He inspired Muslims of the Sub-Continent and beyond. He infused a moving spirit and identity in the Indian Muslims. He presented a framework of their political future and talked how that would help to achieve the goal of Ummah. He presented a vision and dream in his Allahabad Address. 1: Background The Hindu-Muslim question had great importance and stood crucial to British Indian history after 1857, especially in the 20th century. To Muslims, the key issue remained ‘separate identity. ’ They tried their level best to make the rival nations understand that the Muslims are a separate nation having different culture and civilization, interests and rights.The Two Nations th eory could not fascinate the Hindus and the British peoples because they believed in ‘territorial nationalism. ’ The Hindus desired to absorb them in their majority but they could not face the arguments of the Muslim intellectuals. By 1930, Muslims had developed a sense of identity and political demands. Iqbal delivered his Presidential address in this background. Iqbal’s stay in Europe, 1905-08, helped to crystallize his thoughts. He returned to India in 1908 and started work on the roots of Muslim decline and the mechanism to uplift the Muslims. He reminded them to follow the teachings of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) practically as the ideal leader. He emphasized on the ideals, teachings and principles of Islam.He sought salvation through Islam. He was awarded with many prominent social positions: †¢ Title of Sir was conferred in 1922 †¢ Member Punjab Legislative Council (1927-1930) He delivered lectures on Islam in Aligarh, Hyderabad and Madras (1928-29). At Allahabad, he presided over the meeting and delivered his famous address. The Address, December 1930 Iqbal presented a review of the political and social situation of India and solution of the ills befalling India. He evaluated the importance of role of Islam in the lives of Muslims of British India. He said that the European view of duality of religion and state does not apply here in the Indian society.Rejecting the secularism he said, religion is not a totally personal affair. He explained that Islam offers an ethical order, socio-political structure, legal framework, code of life, culture and civilization. It is a living, dynamic force that has a profound impact on the lives of Indian Muslims. With the force of Islam the scattered and disoriented people have been turned into an organized force. The Muslims are not willing to submerge their religious individuality. They have lack of trust, fear of domination from Hindus. If the British want any sort of internal harmony it wou ld be impossible unless the communal question is settled. It’s historical reality that India is a continent inhabited by diverse people.No political arrangement may be acceptable without recognizing this reality. †¢ If the Muslims have an opportunity to develop in accordance with their Islamic civilization and tradition, they would be willing to sacrifice their lives for India. †¢ Federalism cannot succeed without recognizing the national identity of the Muslims. †¢ Territorial redistribution of British India on the basis of religion has become a need of time. †¢ Punjab, NWFP, Sind and Balochistan be amalgamated into a state, self government within the British empire or without it. The formation of such a consolidated North Western Muslim state appears to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North West India.To India, it will offer peace and security due to internal balance of power. †¢ Islam is a people building force in India that has gi ven moral consciousness and political identity to the people. Importance Iqbal’s address is a forceful and logical presentation of the Muslim case in India. Why should they be treated as a political entity rather than a minority? †¢ Territorial adjustments will enable the Muslims to develop themselves in accordance with their ideals and serve the cause of Ummah. †¢ Redistribution of territory developed later on concept of Muslim homeland. †¢ He further expressed these ideas in LETTERS TO JINNAH from May 1936 to November 1937.He talked of a separate federation of Muslim provinces. The North Western India and Bengal can be considered as entitled to self-determination like other nations in India and outside. Shariah’s development is impossible without a free Muslim state or states. He advised the Muslims to be above self-interest and devote themselves to Islam. †¢ In difficult times, Islam has saved the Muslims. †¢ Faith, culture and historical tr aditions are more important than patriotism. Lecture 9 – Muslim Politics and Chaudhry Rahmat Ali Muslim Politics and Chaudhry Rahmat Ali Intellectuals give lines of movement, leaders act upon and the masses prove good soldiers and this way nations accomplish their achievements.Rahmat Ali was one of the eminent scholars who made a significant contribution to the movement for the establishment of Pakistan. He was conscious of Muslim identity and outlined proposals for the partition of India for the sake of Muslims. He was the man who coined the name, PAKISTAN, for the Muslim state. When he first presented his proposal for a Muslim state, nobody took it seriously. The Muslim intellectuals and leaders were concerned about the future of the Muslims in India. They ensured a secure future for Muslims. For this purpose they worked out various proposals for securing a homeland. Rahmat Ali becomes relevant here. Biographical Sketch Ch. Rahmat Ali was born in Hoshiarpur district in 1893 . Traditionally he did his B. A. from Islamia College, Lahore.He did the private and government jobs for some time and then left for Cambridge University for higher education. He was involved actively in the activities for the protection of rights of the Indian Muslims along with some other students at Cambridge University. His activism goes back to his student days in Lahore when he talked of separate state for Muslims of India. Rahmat Ali’s Views He said that North Western areas are Muslim majority ares. We will not only keep these majorities but will turn them into a Muslim state. Muslims should get rid of Indianism, it is better for Muslims and Islam. In his writing, NOW OR NEVER (January 1933), he proposed the name of Muslim state, PAKISTAN. P Punjab A Afghania NWFP K Kashmir S Sind TAN BalochistanINDIA cannot be described as a state/country or home of single nation. This state did not exist as one political entity before the advent of the British. The Muslims are a dist inct nation who has maintained its identity throughout. They are a separate nation. They have as much right to live as the Hindus. Pakistan should be separated from the rest of India. He further said that the conflict between Muslims and Hindus is not religious, sectarian or economic but an international. The Muslims are striving for survival; Hindus are trying for domination over the other nations living in the Sub-Continent particularly the Muslims. He established the Pakistan National Movement in 1940.He began to talk about Bengal and Hyderabad as Muslim areas and separate states. Bang-i-Islam would comprise of Bengal and Assam and Osmanistan of Hyderabad Deccan. He visited Pakistan in 1948 but the atmosphere of the motherland did not suit him and so he returned to Cambridge. He died there on 11 February 1951. His Contribution It is the ever-shining contribution of Rahmat Ali that he coined the name of the Muslim state. He said that being nation, the Indian Muslims deserved a sep arate homeland. He gave the future lines to the Muslims considering Islamic thoughts universal and true in comparison with the contemporary isms. When the Lahore Resolution was passed, it was instantly described as Pakistan Resolution.It, the division of India, was the solution of Hindu-Muslim question but Rahmat Ali proposed this long before the Lahore Resolution. Lecture 10 – The Congress Ministries– Policies towards Muslims The Congress Ministries– Policies towards Muslims Topics: 1. Elections 2. Provincial Governments 3. Their Policies 4. Muslim Response Government of India Act, 1935: The Government of India Act, 1935 was not fully promulgated but the only provincial part was introduced in the country. Muslim League and the Congress criticized it but agreed to contest provincial elections. The 1937 Elections: The elections of 1937 were held with the restricted franchise and separate electorate.The Congress projected itself as an all-India force representing all religions and factions of the society. The Muslim League contested for the Muslim seats. There was a tough competition from the other Muslim organizations. The elections were completed in February 1937. The Congress got majorities in five provinces, Madras, U. P. , C. P. , Bihar, and Orissa. It emerged as the largest party in Bombay and won 704 out of 1585 general seats. The Muslim League performed poorly in the elections and got only about 21 percent of Muslim seats without winning majority anywhere, Bengal, Punjab, NWFP, and Sind. It was mostly due to the organizational problems and opposition by local Muslim groups. Formation of Provincial Governments:In July 1937, Congress formed governments in 6 provinces. In NWFP, Khudai Khidmatgar and Congress formed a coalition government. In the Muslim majority provinces, the Muslim League could not form the governments. The Muslim League desired to be in government in the U. P. but the Congress consented to a conditional support: 1. Di ssolve AIML Parliamentary Board 2. AIML members not to function as a separate group 3. AIML members to express allegiance to the Congress Definitely the above-mentioned terms were a device to subvert the existence of the Muslim League. Therefore, no agreement was possible on this issue. Policies of the Congress Governments: (July 1937-Nov. 939) First all Congress governments in the provinces launched anti-Muslim drive basically to exclude the ML and other Muslim organizations from the government making process. The Congress leaders had come to know that the ML had got roots in the masses. They started ‘Muslim Mass Contact’ movement to defame the ML in their favour. They were making cultural and educational policies that promoted the Hindu culture and symbols in the name of Indian culture. They introduced Banda-Mataram anthem from Annandmath in the institutions and offices etc. The Hindi language was given top most importance in their policies. Wardha Educational Scheme was to convert Muslims into Hindus through primary educational literature.Projection of Hindu heroes like Gandhi and distortion of Muslim history became their moral creed. They followed the policy of discrimination in services or new recruitment for jobs. The Congress ministries adopted overall negative and cruel attitude, especially towards the Muslim activists. This unjust treatment compelled the Muslims to be disciplined in every sphere of life. Muslim Response: The Muslims were well aware of the theocratic inclination of the Hindu people. They arranged a close monitoring of the government. They publicized their policies and raised the issues. The mobilization of Muslims on these matters required keen probe to collect the original facts of the Hindu atrocities. The Pirpur Report:On March 28, 1938, the Council of ML appointed an eight-member committee under the presidentship of Raja Syed Muhammad Mehdi of Pirpur that presented its report on, November 15, 1938. It tried to dig out the cruelties of the Congress ministries in seven provinces. The report took up the Congress support to the rival Muslim organizations, intimidation and threats to the pro-Muslim League people. The Sharif Report, March 1939 The ML deputed Mr. Shareef with members to investigate the injustices under the dictatorial rule of the Hindus. This report mainly collected the facts, concentrating on ill treatment of the government with the Muslims in Bihar. The Fazl-ul- Haq Report: (December 1939) A. K. Fazl-ul-Haq published a pamphlet entitled Muslim Sufferings Under the Rule of Congress and made many alarming revelations e. g. orbidding of Azan, attacks in mosques, noisy processions of the Hindu scoundrels, forbidding of the cow-slaughter etc. This pamphlet responded the indictments by the Congress on the Muslims. All the reports described the Congress government as an attempt to create ‘Hindu Raj’ that wanted to overwhelm the Muslim culture and their identity. It was a rigorou s threat to the Muslims’ interests. Muslim League Activism: The Muslim League highlighted the issues and mobilized the Muslims to counter them adequately. It reorganized the Muslim community to cope with the situation. The ML arranged its session at Lucknow in October 1937. Many prominent leaders like Fazlul Haq participated in the session while SikanderHayat and Saadullah announced their support to the ML. The Muslim leaders shed a sharp criticism on the Congress policies. They protested against the reduction of status of Urdu and other Muslim related issues. They created realization, amongst the Muslims, of what can happen under the Congress rule and urged for serious thinking about the future political and constitutional arrangements. They unearthed the real objectives of the Congress and urged the need of unity among the Muslims under the banner of Muslim League. The Second World War (September 1939) proved blessing for the Muslims in a sense that the Congress Ministries resigned in November 1939.The Muslims observed Day of Deliverance on December 22, 1939. The ML redefined its position during the World War II. They expressed their enthusiasm that no constitution to be enforced without the consent of the Muslims. They eradicated their organizational weaknesses and refined their objectives keeping the experiences of the Congress ministries. Lecture 11 – The Lahore Resolution, 1940 The Lahore Resolution, 1940 The experience of Congress Rule compelled the Muslims to launch the movement for separate homeland. The Hindus made them realize that Hindu government would mean an anti-Muslim ru

Against legalizing gay marriage Essay

Whenever there is debate on gay marriage it involves social as well as legal arguments and it can be for or against the topic of legalizing gay marriage. If people are asked about equality of basic rights to gays like that of protection in law or owning property or benefits from the government, almost three fourth of the population will favor the suggestion. But as soon as the same set of people are asked about gay marriage, only one third out of them might agree with it. There are many pre-occupied thoughts that prevail in the minds of people in the society about gays. The first and the foremost thing is that marriage is a tradition in which a man is legally bound to a woman and is responsible for the development and security of the family as well as the society too. If gay marriages were allowed there would be no meaning to this holy institution and it is not in the best interests for the development of children, as they will be deprived of either the father or mother. As far as equal rights are concerned gays too have all rights that common residents of the state has and they can marry the person of opposite sex just as anyone marries. But sking for legalization of gay marriages is something extra because they would like to marry the person of the same sex, which is only based on sexual relationship. Marriage is a holy institution and the tradition followed is not because the base of marriage is only sexual relationship but the whole lot of responsibilities is shared right from bringing up children and giving them healthy environment to grow and become a good human being. Gay marriage would weaken this respect for marriage as an institution and would also change the real definition of marriage. From time immemorial, studies show that marriage has helped people become stronger emotionally, financially, and psychologically and most of the time medically too. If gay marriages were legalized the traditional values of the families would be weakened and they are very important for the proper development of the society. Marriage is considered as the building block of our society with families involving man, woman and children in each. It is well said that lovers as well as friends come and go but family stands for anyone in any circumstances. The reason behind the deterioration of ulture and values is the weakening of today’s family bonding. If ‘another’ type of family is introduced in the society through gay marriages, it will make the situation even worse. It is going to create significant and long term damage to culture and society. Marriage is an honorable institute that complete, support and encourage one another in a bond that is invisible. Almost every religion is not in favor of homosexuality and most of them consider gay marriage as a sin. Many scholars are of the opinion that gay marriage would give way to polygamy and extra marital relationships and then it would be very difficult o save and bind the society into specific values and rules regarding relationships especially sex. The kids today have become extrovert and frank and at the same time they don’t hesitate to agree with the fact that they are homosexual or bisexual. If gay marriage were legalized its consequences would be very deteriorating for the society and there would be massive repercussions. The consequences of these marriages would be in the upbringing of children and the future generation would be huge sufferers. Now, the existing marriage and system of law that help to get divorce easily has already pulled down the institution f marriage. It is the undeniable interest of the countries to put it on the right path, which will not be possible if gay marriage was legalized. There is another point that should be taken care of and that is the scientific and logical perspective. While talking about marriages and relationship, society as well as science does not accept and conclude that incest is safe and that is the reason why intermarriage of family members are prohibited. Also polygamy is not good for the health of the family and society as a whole and that is why Muslims and Mormons are restricted in many ountries to marry more than one compliant adult without divorcing the existing one. So we see that there are reasons behind all relationships and rules to follow in the institute of marriage so that a healthy society is built up. As far as gay marriage is concerned, never in the history we find that gays have achieved marital status or it is good and for the welfare of the society for any convincing reason and so it is not so easy to shred the tradition of society. Social scientists are seriously concerned about the development of children as well as society and are worried about the fractured family that the children of today are getting. If this continues and autonomous people marry and remarry or have relationships outside marriage, children will be the utmost sufferers. If in this condition gay marriage is legalized, everyone is going to care for themselves and no one will take the responsibility of the future generation and society as well. Marriage ties two people together and along with them future and past generation are also attached. It is an institution that teaches carrying along responsibilities and selflessness, which further helps build a society with strong and successful values and culture. Gay marriage would only lead to society with eople who care for their interests and these kinds of people never consider the development of society or believe in traditional values and culture. People will start doing what they like and this will give rise to cases of polygamy and may be give rise to pedophiles or zoophiles too. It has never been an issue to legalize gay marriage in history until recently. But for the overall development of society and to save our real values and culture and above all save the future generation from getting selfish motives to lead life. Children would be deprived of either father or mother and their development would definitely hamper. The couples would not be able to teach their children commitment and bonding of love and responsibility towards family and society. Marriage is also considered sacred in most religions and a step towards God as well as to perform duties, which are answerable to God too. The married couple has to carry out certain responsibilities and follow the rules of society because after all ‘man is a social animal’ and no one can be sufficient on his own. Homosexual relationships have nothing to do with the propagation of society and they would not serve the society in state interest.