Ethical Stance for Research on Sustainable Tourism

Ethical Stance for Research on Sustainable Tourism Introduction Dr Jim Macbeth (2005, p.963), a lecturer and researcher in Australia who specialises in tourism research, has put forward the argument that, in the modern world, the stakeholders involved with the tourism industry, primarily the educators, developers and providers, need to find an â€Å"ethical† stance that will create a natural and appropriate platform for studying sustainability in tourism. To assess the validity of this assessment, one has to first consider the way that tourism research has been conducted and evolved in recent decades, together with the approach that has been used by the tourism industry in dealing with and combining the ethical and sustainability issues. From this a discussion on the relevance of ethical issues that are needed to address sustainability can be developed. Tourism Research As Dr Macbeth (2005) observes, historically, tourism research had evolved into a multi-faceted approach, which is based upon the four main threads outlined in the study conducted by Jafa Jafari (1990). In the initial stages, such research concentrated mainly upon the economic aspects of the tourism process. Being directed in this manner, the result of this research tended to emphasise the fiscal benefits that developing tourism would bring to a particular destination and the commercial organisations. However, with the increasing prevalence of the implementation of the economic research and their impact on destinations, researchers began to ask questions about the adverse social and cultural effect tourism was having. These two processes covered the tourism industry through the era of growth in mass-tourism. Alternative Tourism The third stage of tourism industry research development moved to the study of a new tourism phenomenon, alternative tourism, Initially, this was just seen and studied as a different level of tourist consumer, one whose demands and expectations were more than just the for the sun, sea and sand vocation of the mass-market vacation. These are the tourist who want independent and self-fulfilling vacations, ones that provided a unique level of escape. They were seeking the more active vacations, ones that gave the feeling of â€Å"self-autonomy and self-invention† (Cohen and Taylor, 1992, p.25) It was as a result of this movement that the educational institutions, particularly universities, became more interested in treating tourism as a bona-fide study subject. Universities increasingly offered courses aimed specifically at tourism as they took a deeper interest in the subject. Jafa Jafari (1990) was also correct in his prediction that the global educational commitment to tourism has increased at a faster rate from the date of his publication than it did previously. In addition, the educationalists, scholars and researchers have expanded the areas of their research into other and dedicated aspects of the subject. Sustainability In the last two decades two areas of tourism have attracted particular attention in educational and research, these being sustainability and ethics, in that order. Sustainability, which has been a driving focus in business for several decades, was the first area that caught the interest of tourism researchers. Initially it was approached on the basis of how to protect and maintain the attraction of destinations that were experiencing mass tourism growth. However, with the advent of increasing concerns regarding protection of the historical and natural environment, together with the increased interest in the physical damage that man was causing the climate, the scope of research into sustainability in tourism broadened significantly. Studies were conducted into ways in which destinations of historical and cultural interest could be exploited for tourism purposes, and to the economic benefit of the local community, whilst at the same time ensuring that the sites remained intact and did not become damaged or adversely affected by the increasing tourist traffic influx. Sustainability in natural destinations also received a lot of attention. The question of how one managed the dichotomy of conflicting issue that arise between the expectation and perception of the tourist consumer on the one hand, and the sustainability requirements of the destination on the other, were issues that resulted in a number of studies. For example, as Dr Macbeth (2005) has observed in terms of â€Å"wildlife† tourism, one has to decide how far to provide the natural experience of wildlife adventure that the tourists demands, whilst at the same time allowing the wildlife the ability to be sustained in their own environment. The discussion as to whether limited captivity, as is the case of the safari parks of Africa, provided a sustainable answer, namely would it still provide the experience that the tourist consumer required although not strictly a natural experience, was undertaken. One study into this specific subject by Newsome, Hughes and Macbeth (2005) showed t hat captive wildlife, seen in a natural setting, received a positive response from the tourists, fulfilling their expectations, whilst at the same time this environment offered some protection for the animals and their habitat. Similar issues and concerns have arisen regarding the tourist attraction to natural places of outstanding beauty, such as lakes and mountains. Here again, studies have concentrated on the complex issue of how to satisfy the tourism need without allowing that need to destroy the environment being enjoyed. However, problems began to develop when the theories were put into practice. As Fennell (2006, p.1) mentions in his book, a â€Å"negative backlash that has come about regarding the so-called ‘new tourism.’† One of the main reasons for this was that not all of the stakeholders involved in the tourism research were being adequately considered. As Fennell (2006, p.4) explains, there are three significant human sides to this triangle, being the tourist, the organisation that arranges the travel or vacation, and those who reside at or close to the destination. As a result of these mounting concerns, the issue of â€Å"ethics† began to arise. Ethics Ethics are codes that are derived and constructed from the moral value that is attached to an action, and they apply to every aspect of our lives. In other words the fundamental ethos of ethics dictates that the action or behaviour of a person, group or organisation should be appropriate to the issue and be seen to be conforming to the expectations of those affected by that behaviour (Fennell 2006, p.57). Like the word â€Å"sustainability†, the term â€Å"ethics† has in recent years become a featured part of the rhetoric within the business world as a whole and the tourism industry is no exception (Pearce, Moscardo and Ross 1977, p.89). Much is written in promotional material by tourism organisations about the ethics of their product and the ethical principals by which they work. In fact a plethora of ethical codes have been produced for all tourism industry stakeholders including, â€Å"codes of ethics for travellers; codes of ethics for tourists, for government, and for tourism businesses. Codes for all†¦ † (Fennell, 2006 p.241). However, partially as a result of the fact that such codes were not considered to be sufficient, and did not respond to the issues that were being raised, tourism researchers such as Jim Macbeth (2005) and others began to study how ethics should be viewed and used when dealing with the problems of sustainability within tourism. To do this meant that one had to look at ethics from the point of view of all shareholders, which, when addressing the three mentioned in Fennell’s (2006, p.4) study, meant understanding the effects that tourism policy and planning had on them. In addition there is the ethics related to the impact vacations will have upon environmental issues and how to handle these facets. In term of the application of ethics to the tourist consumer, research has to consider both aspects of these stakeholders. Not only is there the moral and ethical issue of ensuring that the tourist perceptions and expectations are honestly matched, but there is also the tourists own ethical standards and how they impact upon the success of otherwise of the sale of the destination product. The authenticity of the wildlife issue has been mentioned previously. Although, the majority of tourists considered the â€Å"captivity in natural surroundings† to be a natural wildlife experience, is it ethical for the destination to be portrayed in this manner? Similarly, is it ethical for the wildlife to be subjected to this sort of unnatural control simply to satisfy the needs of the tourist consumer? The tourist attitudes to â€Å"alternative tourism† have also changed. The tourist consumer has become more aware of the environmental issues surrounding destinations and vacations. As Pearce, Moscado and Ross (1997, p.152) explain in their study regarding the tourist relationship with the destination they are visiting, the â€Å"environmental attitudes to tourism are not held in isolation but, for some citizens, are a part of a larger environmental ethic.† An increasing number of tourists no longer expect their vacations to include all of the environmentally damaging aspects that were previously provided, neither do they expect the planners and policy makers to develop areas for vacations to the detriment of the environment; historical and cultural values. Similarly, they do expect those same persons and organisations to act towards the tourist consumer in an ethical manner. The perception is that, whilst providing the destination for vacation, this should be conducted in an ethical manner, ensuring that the correct measures are taken to ensure sustainability of the site and those communities, wildlife and natural resources that depend upon it. Brokers Brokers include all of those parties that have an interest in providing the destination and its activities to the tourist. This includes the local governments and policy makers, those who develop and maintain the sites, such as the hoteliers and attraction owners, and the sellers, being travel agents. All of these organisations need to address ethical issues that attract to the services and facilities they provide. Research has shown that many of these operators and brokers are already promoting the ethical aspect of their service, and are claiming that they have taken on board the demands of the consumer. For example there are corporations whose â€Å"Ethical tours claim to combine environmental education with minimal travel comfort, help protect local communities and environments† (Mowforth and Munt 2003, p.51). However, research and studies undertaken cast doubt on many of these claims. As Mowforth and Munt’s (2003, p.202) studies show, whilst the terms â€Å"environment,† â€Å"sustainability† and may appear in the organisation’s publicity to promote their ethical stance, it does not necessarily mean that these are factual claim. One representative, when questioned by these researchers in regards to their corporate responsibility to inform their consumers about the affect of tourism, responded that their primary task was to sell vacations. Much of the research work that Dr Macbeth (2005) has undertaken over the years, has been specifically targeted at endeavouring to create a platform which allows these organisations to address the ethical issues that face them in the provision of destinations and services, so that the claims made can be supported by genuine action. Macbeth has provided both theoretical and practical examples of how a destination can be designed in such a way that it incorporates the needs of all the stakeholders, whilst at the same time limiting the damage that can be caused by unethical methods. This includes how to involve the communities at all levels of the development of the destination and its running; ensure safety of the local environment, historical venues and places of interest; and at the same time presenting the destination in an ethically positive manner that will still address all of the tourist consumer demands and expectations and sustain tourism usage. One of the most difficult ethical issues facing tourism today is the community that live around or are involved in the destination site. This is especially true in areas such as developing countries and where there is a new destination being developed or exploited, as well as areas that have not had previous experience of such ventures within their locality. In the case of communities in and surrounding new destination developments, there are a number of ethical issues to be addressed. For example, whilst most may desire the benefit of such a development, Dr Macbeth believes that the developer has an ethical duty to ensure that the community is fully aware of the impact that the developed destination will have on their lives, environment and, potentially, their culture. It is accepted that this is not an easy task to achieve, particularly as with no previous experience by which to make a comparison, these communities may not fully comprehend the impact even when it is explained to them. Nevertheless, as the case studies and actual projects carried out by Dr Macbeth and his students have demonstrated, it is possible for such an understanding to be achieved (Jim Macbeth 1997). Community reactions are very important to the successful development of any destination site. Therefore their involvement with and acceptance of the project is important to achieve. As Pearce, Moscardo and Ross (1997, p.6) confirm, â€Å"the issue of how communities shape and respond to social and environmental changes is a driving factor in assessing community response to tourism.† Environment Finally, there is the issue of ethics in respect of the environment. In the current climate of potential threat to wildlife, dwindling natural resources, locations and the larger environmental issues, destination managers have an ethical duty to play their part in its sustainability. They also have a duty to ensure that their development does as little environmental damage as possible and contribute to the protection of the environment, rather than add destructive forces that will increase the dangers and damage. This includes such matters as energy conservation, emission control, and protection of wildlife, heritage and local communities. For example, with wildlife it is important that the planners are aware of any endangered species located within the destination target area, and ensure that the neither the development, nor the resultant tourist consumer activity can in any way add to the endangerment of that species. Ethical research It is important that, prior to the commencement of any development, research is undertaken to ensure that all of the ethical issues are addressed. The organisation needs to understand the impact that construction projects might have on the local environment, and its impact on issues such as wildlife protection and climate emissions. The research must also evaluate the effect of the development on the local population, its culture and heritage. One important proviso of the research that is undertaken is the independence of the researchers who undertake the study. Whilst, as is increasingly the case with studies and research projects that take place within universities, the planners and policy makers may contribute funding for the project, it is essential, and ethically correct to ensure that these people and organisations are able to carry out their tasks without any influence or pressure applied by those organisations. The purpose of such research is to reach a conclusion that provides for an ethical stance that all of the stakeholders can agree is desirable and, in addition, provide recommendations as to how the project and the ethical stance can be achieved and protected. In essence it should form the basis for â€Å"the purpose of identifying a template from which to aid in the development of tourism ethics.† (Fennell, p.197) Conclusion From the various researches that have been studied in the preparation of this paper, it is the author’s opinion that the hypothesis statement made by Dr Jim Macbeth is supported. There is a need for the educators and other stakeholders in the tourism industry to review the issues and construct an â€Å"ethical stance† that provides for a sustainable platform. It is equally importance that the strategy evolved from such a stance is seen to be effective and transparent to all concerned, with a determined effort to address and maintain all of the issues that constructing and maintaining a vacation destination involves. It is equally important to ensure that any studies and researches undertaken in an effort to achieve such a position are arrived at as a result of full discussion with, and involvement by all of the stakeholders involved with the product. Fennell (2006, p.346) observes, â€Å"In allowing ethics into tourism, we open the door to philosophy and the humanities.† Whilst it is accepted that this is the case, in the view of the author, there is no possibility of omitting this factor from the tourism research process. Ethics is an integral part of the tourist consumer’s human decision process. It is the stance that is taken on those ethics and the way it is approached that is important. References Butcher, Jim (2003). The Moralisation of Tourism: Sun, Sand†¦ and Saving the World? Routledge. London UK. Cohen, S. and Taylor, L (1992). Escape Attempts. The Theory and Practice of Resistance to Everyday Life. Routledge. New York. US. Fennell, David A (2006). Ethical Tourism. Channel View Publications. Clevedon, UK. Jacobsen Damien, Carson Dean, Macbeth Jim and Rose Simon (2005) Prosper Pilot Case Study. Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre. Queensland, Australia. Jafari, Jafar (1990). Research and Scholarship: The Basis of Tourism Education. The Journal of Tourism Studies, Vol.1, No.1. Queensland, Australia. MacBeth, Jim (2005). Towards an Ethics Platform for Tourism. Elsevier Ltd. Annals of Tourism Research, Vol 32. No. 4, pp 962-984. Oxford, UK. Macbeth, Jim (1997). Tourism, Policy and Planning in Australia and New Zealand: Issues and Cases. Irwin Publishers. Sydney, Australia. Section 3, Chapter 13. Mowforth, Martin and Munt, Ian (2003) Tourism and Sustainability. Routledge. London, UK. Pearce, Philip L., Moscardo, Gianna and Ross, Glenn F. (1997) Tourism Community Relationships. Elsevier Ltd. Oxford, UK. Cohen, S. and Taylor, L (1992). Escape Attempts. The Theory and Practice of Resistance to Everday Life. Routledge. New York, US. Newsome, D, M. Hughes and J. Macbeth (2005) Captive Wildlife Tourism in a Natural Setting: Visitor Satisfaction as a Measure of Success at Barna Mia, Western Australia. Journal of Ecotourism. Vol. 4, No. 2, pp73-91. Australia.

Milgram study

The world came to know about the kind of research that Stanley Milgram had just started to explore in 1963 when he started to make his experiments known to the public. One of the major consequences of his studies was the development and establishment of ethics in research especially those involving human subjects. However, that became more like a serendipitous outcome of an entirely different pursuit in studying behavior.What Milgram set out to study was the issue of obedience in retrospect of the holocaust and the probable reasons that many people then under the Nazi regime followed orders that were inhuman or barbaric. It was approximately around the investigation of Adolf Eichmann who manned the Gestapo persecutions during the said Holocaust; this person had to face charges of genocide which was held in Jerusalem (Milgram, 1963).The experiment involved what Milgram called the learner, the teacher and the experimenter who authorized the course and duration of the study. The learner is the person who actually was employed to help the experiment (assumingly with the consent and guidance of Milgram). The â€Å"naà ¯ve† or innocent person (the learner) will work with the same group of people but one who was actually a good actor. The teachers will conduct the tasks assigned to him about the memory exercise he was to supervise which was the learner will be able to accomplish; later an evaluation takes place of what that person (the learner) may have retained. If the learner commits mistakes, varied or graduated shocks were to be applied with matching painful and agonizing sounds that can be heard (Morris & Maisto, 1999).The experiment showed that despite attempts by the learner to communicate to the teacher/volunteer that the painful shocks should be stopped, whenever the experimenter (e.g. Milgram) was asked about stopping the treatment and the latter affirming that this was a part of the experiment, an overwhelming approximately 65% continued administeri ng the shocks. What was even astounding was that when the person playacting as if in sheer agony and even almost dying or breathless, the teacher continued to administer these shocks which were increasing in intensity (Morris & Maisto, 1999).What were the implications of the study? An important lesson could be gaining insight as to people’s reasons why they may subject other people who were innocent to these painful episodes. Like the SS men of Eichmann during the captivity of the Jews in the early 40s, men who were deeply religious to a large degree, obey the orders despite what have been obvious clashes of understanding (Morris & Maisto, 1999). Authority figures cannot be denied as people who ought to be listened. Factors for a brief view on the implications point to people’s previous upbringing or how they were inculcated on by caregivers and figures who acted as people in authority and the value of obedience.Works cited:Milgram, Stanley. Behavioral study of obedien ce. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, (1963). 67, 371-378.Morris, Charles & Albert A. Maisto. Understanding    psychology, 4th ed. Prentice hall, Inc. USA. (1999).

Succubus Revealed Chapter 15

It was easier said than done, and once Hugh and Roman gave me some space, the full impact of what had taken place really and truly hit me. Seth was Kyriakos. Kyriakos was Seth. Even after witnessing what I had with my own eyes, I don't think I would have believed it if something inside me . . . some gut instinct . . . hadn't told me it was all true. Not that I'd ever suspected it. Not that I'd ever dreamed it. The draw that I'd felt to Seth had been strong, no question, just as the draw to his other incarnations had been. I'd always felt there was something special about Seth in particular, though, and wondered now what might have set this life apart from the rest. Did some part of me – or some part of him? – recognize that this was the last chance for us to be together? Was that where the urgency was coming from? Or was it more about the passage of time and whom I had become? Recent years had made me more jaded about life as a succubus, and I wondered if perhaps that was what made him and our love so precious to me at this point in time. Our love, which had just blown up before my eyes. I called in sick to work the next day, something that didn't really go over all that well. It was Christmas Eve, one of the busiest days for Santa and his mall team, but I didn't care. There was no way I could face that chaos, not after what had happened with Seth. I was told curtly that if I didn't come into work, then I shouldn't expect to be rehired next year. I almost laughed and only barely managed to cling to some shred of professionalism, as I gravely informed my manager that I'd take that risk. Next Christmas, I'd most likely be in Las Vegas. Even if I wasn't, I was pretty sure I could manage to get by without minimum wage and my foil dress. Finding Seth proved trickier. He didn't answer my phone calls, and when I went to his condo, no one answered. Neither his nor Margaret's car was parked out front, leading me to believe they were either doing last-minute Christmas shopping or visiting Terry and Andrea. If it was the former, I had no way of locating Seth easily. If it was the latter, I certainly wasn't going to barge into Terry's house and demand Seth speak to me. The situation might be dire, but I still had my boundaries. It would've been so easy to use these obstacles as the means to dodge talking to Seth altogether. Despite my assurances to Hugh and Roman, I really didn't want to see Seth. Well, the part of me that was in love with him did. That part was in agony every moment we weren't together. But the rest of me didn't want to face that expression again, that terrible hurt on his face. I didn't want to confront the reality of what I was. Despite agreeing to see Seth, I really hadn't been able to truly convey to Roman and Hugh just how agonizing the thought of facing up to my sins was. I hadn't been able to handle the wrongness of what I'd done then; I could barely do it now. I'd sold my soul, blighted away the memories of all those I'd loved . . . all because I didn't want to accept the responsibility of what a terrible thing I'd done. You'd think after almost a millennium and a half, that fear and self-preservation would have changed. I guess it hadn't. Or maybe it had. The fact that I was trying to find Seth now was proof that I had changed a little, enough to attempt another conversation after his adamant rejection of me. â€Å"Kincaid?† I glanced behind me. I was standing in line at a coffee shop Seth occasionally patronized to sit and write. Coming here had been a long shot, and I hadn't been all that surprised to see he wasn't around. Last I knew, he hadn't been here in ages, especially with everything going on in his family. Apparently, this place had other patrons I hadn't known about. â€Å"Doug,† I said in surprise. I quickly placed my order for a white chocolate mocha and then waved as Doug strolled over to me. He'd just come in, and fine drops of water covered his black hair. â€Å"What are you having?† I gestured to the barista. Doug looked a little surprised but only hesitated a moment before ordering an inhumanly sized cup of drip. â€Å"Thanks,† he told me, when I handed it over to him. â€Å"You want to sit a minute?† I asked. My original intention had been to grab the mocha and go. I didn't know what Doug's plan was, but some perverse urge made me want to try to get a moment with him. â€Å"Sure,† he said, looking a little uncertain. â€Å"But just for a minute. I've got to be at work in an hour.† â€Å"We don't want you to be late for that,† I agreed, settling down at a small table that gave us a fine view of the sleet outside. Seattle wasn't really known for white Christmases. â€Å"All those last-minute shoppers trying to get their boxed sets.† The ghost of a smile crossed his face. â€Å"You know it. I'm surprised you aren't at work. Is it true? I heard you were, uh, working elf duty at a mall on the Eastside.† I grimaced. â€Å"Painfully true. But I quit today.† His eyebrows rose. â€Å"On Christmas Eve? That's cold, Kincaid. Think of the children.† â€Å"I know. But, well, something came up. . . .† I glanced away, unable to meet his eyes as all my troubled feelings threatened to surface. â€Å"Yeah, I can tell,† he said. I dared a look back. â€Å"What do you mean?† Doug shrugged. â€Å"I don't know. Just this vibe I always got off of you when you were feeling blue. You put on a good face for most of the world, but when something hurts you, your energy changes. Christ.† He took a big drink of coffee. â€Å"Now I'm sounding all New Agey and shit.† â€Å"Well, whatever it is, your instincts are right.† I reconsidered. â€Å"Though ‘blue' is kind of an understatement. More like navy. Or even black.† â€Å"Mortensen?† he guessed. I shook my head and glanced away again. â€Å"You don't want to hear about that.† Although, perhaps some part of him would be glad to know Seth and I were through. It'd be vindication after what we did to Maddie. â€Å"Try me,† said Doug. When I didn't answer, he sighed. â€Å"Kincaid, I don't hate you. I'm not happy about what went down, but in some weird, twisted way, I do still care about you. If something's wrong, you can tell me. Did Mortensen hurt you?† â€Å"No,† I said. Then: â€Å"Well, yes, but not without cause. I hurt him first.† â€Å"Ah.† I dragged my gaze back to Doug. His eyes were dark and serious, no trace of enjoyment in my suffering. â€Å"I've been trying to find him today . . . trying to get a hold of him. But I think he's avoiding me. No, I know he's avoiding me.† â€Å"You'll patch it up,† said Doug. â€Å"I don't know. I don't think we can this time.† † ‘This time,' † he scoffed. â€Å"Kincaid, the first moment I saw you and Mortensen together, there was something there. I don't know how to describe it. I was always surprised you guys never went out. I was surprised when he started going out with Maddie, though they seemed happy enough until . . . well, you know. Until he figured out he should be going out with you.† He paused, thinking. â€Å"Anyway, I talk a good talk about love in my songs but really don't know shit about it in real life. From what I do know, though, I feel like it's going to take more than whatever argument this is to keep you guys apart.† â€Å"Thanks,† I said. â€Å"That's nice of you . . . but you don't know. What I did was pretty terrible.† â€Å"What you guys did to Maddie was pretty terrible,† said Doug. â€Å"But I've forgiven you.† â€Å"You have?† I asked, startled. â€Å"Yeah.† He seemed a little surprised by the admission. â€Å"I mean, it helps that this neurosurgeon asked her out last week. I can forgive a lot if it means having a doctor brother-in-law. But in all seriousness? I know you guys didn't mean to hurt her, just like you didn't mean to hurt Mortensen here. What you did do is screw up majorly in the forthcomingness department.† â€Å"Forthcomingness?† I repeated. He waved me off. â€Å"Whatever. It's a word. If you guys had been honest with yourselves and with her, you could've saved everyone a world of hurt. Keep that in mind now.† â€Å"You're a regular relationship guru,† I said, earning me another scoff. Yet, as wise as his words sounded, I still didn't think there was any way to fix this thousand-year-old hurt. Before I could muster another comment, my phone rang. I looked down at the display in surprise. â€Å"It's Seth.† â€Å"You better answer it, then,† said Doug. With a gulp, I did. â€Å"Hello? Yeah. Uh-huh . . . sure. Okay . . . I understand. Okay. Bye.† I disconnected and Doug gave me a questioning look. â€Å"That didn't sound all that warm and fuzzy.† â€Å"Seth wants me to come to Christmas dinner tomorrow,† I said disbelievingly. â€Å"Well, that's a good sign,† said Doug. I shook my head. â€Å"I don't think it is. He said he doesn't want to create more upset in the girls' lives and just wants me there for appearances, to make them happy. He made it clear that nothing's changed, nor does he expect it to.† â€Å"I guess it's more of a lukewarm sign, then,† said Doug. I sighed, and Doug gently chucked my chin. â€Å"Cheer up, Kincaid. You wanted to talk to him. Here's your chance, no matter what he said. Don't waste it.† I mustered a smile. â€Å"How'd you get so wise, Doug?† He finished his coffee in a gulp. â€Å"Fuck if I know.† Doug's words were the kind that you hear in movies and books, the kind that power the against-all-odds comeback we love to see. It was my one chance, my chance to break through Seth's walls and surmount the insurmountable problems between us. But Seth made sure I never had the chance. I arrived on my own, laden with presents, and was immediately directed to entertain the girls. Seth made the request, since he and most of the other adults (except Ian, who only marginally counted as an adult anyway) were dug in inside the kitchen, and it seemed very reasonable. Normally, I wouldn't have minded either, except I had the gut feeling Seth was purposely keeping us far apart and constantly surrounded by people. So, I played with the girls, only half-listening as they excitedly told me about what they'd gotten for Christmas. The only time my brooding thoughts shifted from Seth was when Brandy remarked about how more presents had shown up under their tree this morning than could be accounted for. â€Å"No one will own up to having gotten some of the presents. Mom and Dad think Uncle Seth did it. He thinks Grandma did it,† Brandy said in a soft voice, so the littler ones wouldn't overhear her. â€Å"What kind of presents?† I asked. She shrugged. â€Å"Just toys . . . but lots of them. Like, Mom and Dad got Morgan some Princess Ponies. But this morning ? There were some Power Prism Ponies there too.† I vaguely remembered Carter and Morgan discussing those very ponies. â€Å"Maybe Santa came by,† I said. Brandy rolled her eyes, looking skeptical. â€Å"Maybe.† When dinner came, there was no avoiding being near Seth. Everyone expected us to sit together, and he could hardly ask to move somewhere else. But again, with so many people around, it didn't matter. I wasn't going to bring up any dangerous topics in the middle of Christmas dinner, and Seth knew that. Both of us were silent, simply listening as the others talked excitedly about the day and how happy they were that Andrea was feeling better. When dinner ended, Seth was the first one up and made a big deal about how all the guys should do dishes tonight while the ladies of the household retired to the living room. Everyone was pleased with this idea, except for Ian and me. â€Å"What is it with you guys and Christmas?† asked Andrea conspiratorially. I was sitting with her on the loveseat watching as Kendall directed Morgan's ponies into an epic battle to the death. â€Å"Huh?† I asked, glancing away from the battlefield. â€Å"You and Seth,† said Andrea. â€Å"I remember last Christmas, you guys were the same. Isn't this supposed to be the happiest day of the year?† I repressed a grimace. Last Christmas, I'd found out that Seth had slept with Maddie in an effort to â€Å"protect me† from a relationship with him. Yeah. That hadn't been a great holiday either. â€Å"We've got nothing against Christmas,† I said bleakly. â€Å"Just . . . some issues to sort out.† She frowned. â€Å"Is it about his tour? I figured you'd be for that.† â€Å"What tour?† â€Å"His publisher wants him to go traveling right after New Year's. Seth had originally refused because of . . . well, me. But I've felt so good lately, I told him he shouldn't waste the chance.† I hadn't known about that. I wondered if it was something that had just come up in the last day or if Seth simply hadn't told me beforehand. The tour would fall before my Las Vegas transfer, and I wouldn't have put it past Seth to decline it in order to maximize his time with me. Well, at least before things went bad. â€Å"That's not it,† I said after several seconds, when I realized she was expecting an answer from me. â€Å"It's . . . complicated.† â€Å"It always is,† she said wisely. I looked past her, toward the kitchen, where I could just barely see the Mortensen men moving around with the dishes. â€Å"For now, I'd just settle for a few moments alone.† She made no comment about that, but later, when the guys returned to the living room, she said very casually, â€Å"Seth, would you mind going upstairs to get my red cardigan? I left it on the foot of the bed.† Seth was about to sit down – far away from me, of course – but sprang up instantly at the request. As soon as he'd disappeared up the stairs, Andrea nudged me with her elbow. I turned to her, startled, and she jerked her head toward the stairs. Go, she mouthed. I glanced around, saw no one was paying much attention to me, and hurried after Seth. I found him in the bedroom, staring around curiously for the sweater that most likely didn't even exist. When he saw me in the doorway, he sighed heavily, realizing he'd been tricked. â€Å"I don't have time for this,† he said, attempting to move past me. I put out my arm to block the door. â€Å"Seth, please. Just listen to me. Just for a few minutes.† He stood there, only a few inches away, and then backed up. Since he apparently didn't want to push past and risk touching me, he must have decided distance was better, even at the risk of being trapped in the room. â€Å"Georgina, there is nothing you can say. Nothing that can change what happened between us.† â€Å"I know that,† I said. â€Å"I'm not going to try.† He eyed me suspiciously. â€Å"You aren't?† I swallowed, all words and thoughts fading from me as I stared into his eyes. There it was – that look. That same look of hurt and utter devastation that Kyriakos had worn so many centuries ago. It was looking out at me through Seth's eyes. I nodded. â€Å"We need to know about your contract. We just want to know some details.† â€Å"To help you?† he asked. â€Å"To help both of us. From what we've gathered, Hell violated my contract when it wrote yours. And that makes the conditions of yours contradictory. We might be able to get them both invalidated . . . but we need to understand yours better.† Seth leaned against the wall, eyes staring vacantly ahead as his thoughts turned inward. â€Å"I don't even understand the details of my contract. I barely remember it. . . . I mean, I do and don't. What went down . . . with the hypnosis . . . it's real and it's not.† I started to take a step forward, wanting badly to touch him and comfort him since he was clearly distraught. Caution held me back. â€Å"You have to try. Right now, if you don't, then you're going to go to Hell when you die. Doesn't matter if you become a saint before then. That contract brands your soul . . . unless, well . . . we're not sure if there was some condition that if you and I got back together, then you'd be free. That's what we need to know.† â€Å"Does it matter?† he asked. â€Å"Seeing as that doesn't look like it's going to happen – doesn't look like it was ever going to happen, if all those lives were any indication.† â€Å"Well, I mean, yeah . . . it matters in that the more information we have, the better our case.† â€Å"Can't you just have Hugh look it up?† I shook my head. â€Å"Not without raising attention. It'd be better if we can get the details from you.† â€Å"Well, sorry, then. I don't remember anything more than what I told you. And honestly? I don't care.† â€Å"How can you not care?† I asked incredulously. â€Å"It's your soul we're talking about!† â€Å"I'll take my chances,† he said. A spark of anger permeated the sorrow that had clung to me these last couple days. â€Å"There are no ‘chances.' It's a done deal. Your soul belongs to Hell. Nothing's going to change it.† â€Å"Does it really matter? You gave your soul to Hell.† â€Å"For you!† I cried. â€Å"I did it for you. To save you. I would do it a hundred times over if I had to.† Seth scoffed. â€Å"Why didn't you just not cheat on me one time?† â€Å"I was young, and I was stupid,† I said, amazed at how levelly I could acknowledge that. â€Å"I was scared, and I felt like you were so far away from me. Like I wasn't part of your priorities anymore. It was all about work and music for you.† â€Å"And you never thought about talking to me about any of that first? You know you can always bring anything up to me.† I sighed. â€Å"To you, maybe. Not to Kyriakos. He . . . you . . . may have meant well but wasn't always so easy to get through to.† â€Å"But I am him,† argued Seth, though he sound a little unsure. â€Å"Er, was.† â€Å"Yes and no,† I said. â€Å"Look, I'm no expert on reincarnation, but from what I know, even though the soul and some parts of the character are constant, there's still, like . . . evolving taking place. You grow and change. That's the point of reincarnation. You're the same person, but you aren't. You weren't perfect back then. Hell, you aren't now. Maybe you – Seth – can handle talking about this . . . maybe after ten lives, you've developed enough relationship maturity. Back then? I'm not so sure. I obviously didn't have it either.† â€Å"Obviously,† he repeated. His gaze held me for a long time, and this time, I couldn't tell what he was feeling. At least there was no overt hate or anything. Either that, or he'd simply learned to conceal it. Finally, he said, â€Å"I meant it. I don't remember the contract details. . . . Just that I would be allowed to keep finding you.† â€Å"That's it?† I said. â€Å"Nothing else? If there's anything more . . . I mean, the stakes here are huge, Seth. I know you said you'd take your chances, but remember when we're talking about your soul, we're looking beyond the scope of one human life. We're looking at eternity.† â€Å"There you go again,† he said, with a small, rueful smile. â€Å"Making an argument for the sanctity of the soul, a soul you threw away.† â€Å"And I told you before, I'd do it again.† â€Å"So you wouldn't have to face me and look me in the eye after what you'd done.† â€Å"In part,† I said. â€Å"But also to save your life. To give you a chance at happiness. Because at that moment . . . that was more important than my eternity.† Seth took a long time to answer, and I again wished I knew what was happening behind those brown eyes. Whose thoughts were stirring in there? His or Kyriakos's? Or any of the other men I'd had turbulent romances with? â€Å"You didn't want to face me then,† he said at last. â€Å"But here you are. Why? To save your own soul?† â€Å"To save both our souls,† I said. Seth straightened up from his slouch against the wall and moved toward the door. â€Å"I can't help you. I mean it – I don't remember anything else. Now. If you'd please make some polite excuse to the others and leave, I'd really appreciate it.† He came to stand in front of me in the doorway, and for a half a second, time stood still as we studied each other, only a few inches apart. A thousand feelings warred within me, powered by a thousand years' worth of lifetimes. With a slow nod, I yielded and let him walk past me. He didn't look back.

Zheng Hes Treasure Ships of the Ming Dynasty

Between 1405 and 1433, Ming China under the rule of Zhu Di, sent out enormous armadas of ships into the Indian Ocean commanded by the eunuch admiral Zheng He. The flagship and other largest treasure junks dwarfed European ships of that century; even  Christopher Columbuss flagship, the Santa Maria, was between 1/4 and 1/5 the size of Zheng Hes. Drastically changing the face of Indian Ocean trade and power, these fleets embarked on seven epic voyages under Zheng Hes guidance, resulting in a rapid expansion of Ming Chinas control in the region, but also of their struggle to maintain it in years to come due to the financial burden of such endeavors. Sizes According to Ming Chinese Measurements All of the measurements in the remaining Ming Chinese records of the Treasure Fleet are in a unit called zhang, which is made up of ten chi or Chinese feet. Although the exact length of a zhang and chi has varied over time, the Ming chi was probably about 12.2 inches (31.1 centimeters) according to Edward Dreyer. For ease of comparison, the measurements below are given in English feet. One English foot is equivalent to 30.48 centimeters. Incredibly, the largest ships in the fleet (called baoshan, or treasure ships) were likely between 440 and 538 feet long by 210 feet wide. The 4-decked baoshan had an estimated displacement of 20-30,000 tons, roughly 1/3 to 1/2 the displacement of modern American aircraft carriers. Each had nine masts on its deck, rigged with square sails that could be adjusted in series to maximize efficiency in different wind conditions. The Yongle Emperor ordered the construction of an amazing 62 or 63 such ships for Zheng Hes first voyage, in 1405. Extant records show that another 48 were ordered in 1408, plus 41 more in 1419, along with 185 smaller ships throughout that time. Zheng Hes Smaller Ships Along with dozens of baoshan, each armada included hundreds of smaller ships. The eight-masted ships, called machuan or horse ships, were about 2/3 the size of the baoshan  measuring approximately 340 feet by 138 feet. As indicated by the name, the machuan carried horses along with timber for repairs and tribute goods. Seven-masted liangchuan or grain ships carried rice and other food for the crew and soldiers in the fleet. Liangchuan was about 257 feet by 115 feet in size. The next ships in descending order of size were the zuochuan, or troopships, at 220 by 84 feet with each transport ship having six masts. Finally, the small, five-masted warships or zhanchuan, each about 165 feet long, were designed to be maneuverable in battle. Though tiny compared with the baochuan, the zhanchuan were more than twice as long as Christopher Columbuss flagship, the Santa Maria. The Treasure Fleets Crew Why did Zheng He need so many huge ships? One reason, of course, was shock and awe. The sight of these enormous ships appearing on the horizon one by one must have been truly incredible for the people all along the Indian Oceans rim and would have enhanced Ming Chinas prestige immeasurably. The other reason was that Zheng He traveled with an estimated 27,000 to 28,000 sailors, marines, translators and other crew members. Along with their horses, rice, drinking water, and trade goods, that number of people required a staggering amount of room aboard the ship. In addition, they had to make space for the emissaries, tribute goods and wild animals that went back to China.